Full text of "The Model T Ford Car, Its Construction, Operation and Repair: A Complete Practical Treatise ..."

See other formats

Google

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project

to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject

to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books

are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the

publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at |http: //books .google .com/I

H ENGN

■ TL

■ ns

H -"

■ P128

■ 1917

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H

THE f IFT (IF
William Gosling

THE MODEL T FORD CAR

ITS CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND REPAIR

A COMPLETE PRACTICAL TREATISE
EXPLAINING THE OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF ALL PARTS
OF THE FORD AUTOMOBILE, WITH COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS

FOR DRIVING AND MAINTENANCE

INCLUDES

THE MOST THOROUGH AND EASILY UNDERSTOOD

ILLUSTRATED INSTRUCTIONS ON FORD

REPAIRING EVER PUBLISHED

BASED ON FIVE YEARS* EXPERIENCE OF A FORD OPERATOR — INVALUABLE

TO ALL FORD OWNERS, DEALERS, SALESMEN, DRIVERS AND REPAIR

MEN— EVERY PHASE OF THE SUBJECT TREATED IN A

NON-TECHNICAL YET COMPREHENSIVE MANNER

VICTOR W. EAj&lS, M. E.

MEMBER SOCIETY OF X^lf^MOBILE ENGINEERS
AUTHOR OF "THE MODERN GASOUNE AUTOMOBILE." ETC.

ILLUSTRATED BY OVER 100 SPECIALLY MADE DIAGRAMS AND DISTINCTIVE

ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHS OF ACTUAL PARTS, ALL

IN CORRECT PROPORTION

NEW YORK

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO.

132 NASSAU STREET

1917

PREFACE

the 1916 season's business there will be at least 1,000,000
Ford cars of all types in use, perhaps more. Most of
these cars have been sold to and are being operated by
persons with but little mechanical knowledge and with no
experience with the gas engine as an automobile power
plant.

The maker's instruction book is excellent but it is
necessarily brief as there is no opportunity for an ex-
tended exposition of principles involved. Many operators
desire to know the first principles before studying the
operation and repair. While considerable instruction is
given in the writer's large work on motoring, **The Mod-
em Gasoline Automobile, " it is not possible to cover any
specific make of car completely in a general treatise.

Many requests have been received from motorists for
a book on the Ford car that would enter into elementary
exposition more than the manufacturer 's instruction book
does and cover some of the points involved in repair and
maintenance more completely.

The writer has operated a Ford car of his own for
nearly four years and has had many other cars of the
same make under observation. This has made the collec-
tion of much data pertaining to repair and maintenance

; i

Copyrighted 1915 and 1916

THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO.

ALL ILLUSTRATIONS IN THIS BOOK HAVE BEEN

SPECIALLY MADE BY THE PUBLISHERS, AND THEIR USB

WITHOUT PERMISSION IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED

PRESS OF

BRAUNWORTH » CO.

BOOK MANUFACTURCRa

BROOKLYN. N. V.

PREFACE

There is only one make of motor vehicle in the world
that is sold in large enough quantities to warrant the
publication of a special treatise on its repair and main-
tenance and that is the Ford Model T. With the close of
the 1916 season's business there will be at least 1,000,000
Ford cars of all types in use, perhaps more. Most of
these cars have been sold to and are being operated by
persons with but little mechanical knowledge and with no
experience with the gas engine as an automobile power
plant.

Many requests have been received from motorists for
a book on the Ford car that would enter into elementary
exposition more than the manufacturer's instruction book
does and cover some of the points involved in repair and
maintenance more completely.

10 Preface

from first hand sources possible and has resulted in an
appreciation of some of the points about which more in-
formation could be imparted to advantage. Special photo-
graphs have been taken and drawings made to make the
subject matter easy of comprehension, even to the student
and non-mechanical owner. Needless to say, the general
repairman and dealer will also find much of interest in
this volume.

The instructions given apply to the Ford cars as pro-
duced by the factory. So many accessory systems such
as lighting regulators, self-starters, auxiliary springs,
etc., are offered for Ford cars that it would require a
volume to consider these alone, so they are not referred to
in this volume because complete instructions for their in-
stallation and care may be obtained from their makers.
As practically no mechanical changes have been made in
the Ford car mechanism for 1917, the instructions given
apply to the new models as well as those that have pre-
ceded them.

VICTOR W PAGE.
October, 1916.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I
THE FORD CAR, ITS PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

PAGES

Important Components of Any Motor Car — Parts of Ford Automobile
Chassis — The Ford Three Point Suspension System — Frame As-
sembly Details — Spring Construction — The Ford Body — ^The
Ford Power Plant 21-44

CHAPTER II

THE ENGINE AND AUXILIARY GROUPS

How the Engine Works — Engine Parts and Their Functions — The
Fuel Supply System — Principles of Carburetion Outlined —
Utility of Gasoline Strainer — What the Carburetor Should Do
— ^The Ford Float Feed Carburetor — The Ford Ignition System
— Induction Coil System Action Explained — Why a Magneto
Is Used on the Ford — Wiring Dry Cell Batteries — ^^laster Vi-
brator Systems — ^Why Cooling Systems Are Necessary — Cooling
Systems Generally Used — Ford Water Circulation ^Methods —
Theory of Lubrication — Derivation of Lubricants — How Ford
Power Plant is Lubricated— The Ford Muffler 45-98

CHAPTER III

DETAILS OF THE FORD CHASSIS PARTS

Why Clutch is Necessary — How Friction Clutches Transmit Power —
Why Change Speed Gearing Is Needed — How Ford Planetary
Gearing Operates — Method of Power Transmission — Rear Axle
Construction — The Ford Axle Bearings — Purpose of Differen-
tial Gear— Utility of Motor Car Brakes— Tlie Ford Steering

Gear . . . ^ 99-132

12 Contents

CHAPTER IV
DRIVING AND MAINTENANCE OF FORD CARS

PAGES

Steps Before Starting the Engine — ^How to Start the Ford Motor —
Controlling Ford Cars — General Driving Instructions — Sugges-
tions for Oiling — Winter Care of Automobiles — The Ford Gas
Lighting System — Electric Lighting for Ford Cars — Tools and
Supplies for Pneumatic Tire Repair — ^Tire Manipulation Hints
— Tire Repair and Maintenance — Tools for Ford Cars — A Typi-
cal Engine Stop Analyzed — Conditions That Cause Failure of
the Ignition System — Common Defects in Fuel Systems — Faults
in Oiling and Cooling Systems — 'Adjusting Transmission — Ad-
justing Loose Front Wheels — ^What to Do When Rear Brakes
Do Not Hold 133-208

CHAPTER V
OVERHAULING AND REPAIRING MECHANISM

Faults in Power Plant and Symptoms — ^Value of System in Over-
hauling — How to Take Down Motor — Carbon Deposits and
Their Removal — How to Repair Cracked Water Jacket — Re-
seating and Trueing Valves — Method of Valve Grinding — ^In-
spectio^^ of Piston Rings — Piston Ring Manipulation — Fitting
Piston Rings — Wrist Pin Wear — Inspection and Refitting of
Engine Bearings — ^Knocking Indicates Loose Bearings — Adjust-
ing Main Bearings — Scraping Bearings to Fit — Rebabbitting
Connecting Rod — Testing Bearing Parallelism — Camshafts and
Timing Gears — ^How to Time Valves in Ford Engines— Repair-
ing Ford Magneto — Packings and Gaskets for Ford Engines —
Precautions in Reassembling Parts — How to Take Down Trans-
mission — Relining Brake Bands. — ^Rear Axle Troubles and Reme-
dies — Care of Springs — Steering Gear Repairs — Miscellaneous
Chassis Parts 209-279

INDEX 281

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

CHAPTER I

PAGE

Fig. 1. — Plan View of the Ford Chassis Showing Relative Loca-
tion of Important Components 26

Fig. 2. — Sectional View of Ford Model T Touring Car Showing
Construction of Chassis and Body Parts. {Folding Plate)

Fig. 3. — Side View of Stripped Ford Chassis Showing Valve Side

of Motor 30

Fig. 4.— Control Side of Stripped Ford Model T Chassis ... 32

Fig. 5. — Plan View of Ford Frame with Power Plant and Rear Axle
in Place Showing Three Point Suspension Principle Utilized in
This Design 34

Fig. 6. — ^Front View of Ford Chassis Showing Front Axle and Spring

Suspension 36

Fig. 7. — Rear View of Ford Model T Chassis Depicting Method of

Attaching Rear Construction to Frame 38

Fig. 8.— Valve Side of the Ford Model T Unit Power Plant Show-
ing Manifolds, Carburetor and Interior of One of the Valve
Spring Chambers 42

CHAPTER II

Fig. 9. — Simple Diagrams Showing the Various Cycles of Operation
Necessary to Obtain an Explosion in the Four Stroke Gasoline
Engine Cylinder. A — Suction. B — Compression. C — Expan-
sion. D — Exhaust . 49

Fig. 10. — Diagram Showing the Relation of the Pistons and Crank
Shaft Throws of the Ford Four Cylinder Motor when Piston
No. 1 is about to Receive the Force of Gas Exploded in the

Combustion Chamber , . .53

14 List of Illustrations

PAGE

Fig. 11. — Part Sectional View of the Ford Four Cylinder Unit
Power Plant Showing Important Parts of the Power Gen-
erating and Transmission System 56

Fig. 12. — Depicting the Distinctive Design of the Ford Motor which
Employs a Eemovable Cylinder Head to Permit Ready Access
to the Combustion Chambers, A^alves and Piston Parts . . 58

Fig. 13. — Showing Method of Ford Valve Construction and Opera-
tion 60

Fig. 14.— The Ford Model T Fuel Supply and Gas Making System 65

Fig. 15. — Part Sectional View of Special Kingston Carburetor Used

on some Ford Model T Cars 69

Fig. 16. — View of Ford Power Plant Showing Main Parts of the
Ford Ignition System. Note Location of Timer and Induction
Coil Box . 72

Fig. 17. — Diagram of Simple High Tension Ignition System for
One Cylinder Motor to show Arrangement and Wiring of
the Principal Parts 74

Fig. 18. — Wiring Diagram Showing Method of Connecting Parts

of the Ford Ignition System 76

Fig. 19.— Parts of the Ford Ignition Timer 78

Fig. 20. — Showing Coils and Magnets that Comprise the Ford
Magneto and their Relation to the Flywheel and Transmis-
sion Gear 79

Fig. 21. — Views Showing Construction of Stationary Magneto Coil
Carrying Member at Left and Rotary Magnet Carrier that
Also Acts as the Motor Flywheel at Right 80

Fig. 22. — Illustrating Method of Connecting Dry Cells in Series at
A and in Series Multiple at B. The Lower Illustration Shows
Some of the Points to be Watched For When Dry Cells Are
Installed in Metal Battery Boxes 82

Fig. 23. — Showing Application of Master Vibrator in Ford Ignition

Svstem 85

Fig. 24.— The Ford Thermo-Syphon Water Cooling System . . 89

Fig. 25. — Sectional View Defining Construction and Method of

Operation of the Ford Exhaust Gas Silencer .... 97

List of Illustrations 15

CHAPTEE III

PAGE
»

Fig. 26. — Plan View of the Ford Planetary Gearing Showing
Method of Carrying Triple Planetary Spur Pinion Assemblies
and Actuating the High Speed Disc Clutch Assembly . . 104

Fig. 27. — Part Sectional View of the Ford Planetary Gearing Show-
ing the Eolation of the Planetary Pinion Assembly, the Re-
verse, Slow Speed and Foot Brake Drums and the Clutch Disc
Assembly 107

Fig. 28. — Phantom View of the Ford Planetary Gearset Showing
the Control Pedal Assembly at Top. View of Gearing Par-
tially Disassembled Showing Brake Bands and Other Parts
at the Bottom ' . . .109

Fig. 29. — Cutaway View of the Ford Rear Axle Differential Hous-
ing Showing Arrangement of Bevel Driving Gearing and
Differential Gears Ill

Fig. 30. — Sectional View of Ford Model T Rear Axle Showing
Driving Gears, Differential, Power Transmission Shafts and
Supporting Bearings 113

Fig. 31. — Types of Anti-Friction Bearings Used in the Ford Car.
A — Cup and Cone Type Angular Contact Ball Bearings Simi-
lar to Those Used in the Front Wheels. B — Hyatt Flexible
Roller Bearing. C — Special Ball Bearings for Resisting End
thrust Only 116

Fig. 32. — Sectional View of Ford Front Wheel Hub Showing Method

of Installing Cup and Cone Type Ball Bearings . . . 118

Fig. 33. — Simplified Diagram to Accompany Explanation of Differ-
ential Gear Action 121

Fig. 34. — End View of Ford Rear Axle with Wheel Removed to

Show Emergency Brake Construction 124

Fig. 35. — Top View of the Ford Steering Gear at A, Showing
Steering Wheel and Motor Speed Controlling Levers. Plane-
tary Reduction Gearing is Depicted at B, which Shows Gear
Compartment with Cover Removed 126

Fig. 36. — Sectional View of Standard Clincher Double Tube Pneu-
matic Tire Such as Used on Ford Cars 129

Fig. 37. — Sectional View Showing Construction of Standard
Schrader Universal Check Valve For Introducing Air to Pneu-
matic Tire Inner Tubes. This is Utilized In Practically All
Tires of American Manufacture 130

16 List of Illttstrations

PAGE

Fig. 38. — Chart Showing Positions of Engine Control Levers on
Steering Post Quadrants for Various Conditions of Car Opera-
tion. These are the Average Positions and may Vary Slightly
on Different Ford Cars (Folding Tabled

CHAPTER IV

Fig. 39. — Diagram Showing Method of Marking Measuring Stick to

Indicate Contents of Ford Ten Gallon Tank .... 134

Fig. 40. — Illustrating Correct Method of Grasping Starting Crank

to Avoid Injury Due to Back Kick 138

Fig. 41. — Showing Wrong Method of Exerting Pressure on Crank

When Starting Motor 140

Fig. 42.--The Control System of the Ford Model T Car . . . 143

Fig. 43. — Showing Method of Applying Non-Skid Chain to Driving

Wheels to Insure Adequate Traction on Wet or Slippery Boads 147

Fig. 44. — Plan View of Ford Model T Chassis Showing Important
Points Eequiring Lubrication and When This Attention is
Needed 149

Fig. 45. — Method of Oiling the Ford Commutator or Timer With
Light Oil. Note Breather Opening Back of Timer Through
Which Oil is Poured into Crank Case 150

Fig. 46. — Devices to Facilitate Starting Ford Motor in Cold
Weather. A — Injex Primer. B — Spark Plug With Priming
Valve Attachment 157

Fig. 47. — Acetylene Gas Lighting System Similar to That Used for
Ford Lights on 1910 to 1914 Models. 1915 Ford Cars Have
Electric Head Lights . . , . 159

Fig. 48. — Lamps and Fixtures Adapted for Electric Current . . 161

Fig. 49. — Simple Wiring Diagram Showing Method of Installing
Storage Battery or Multiple-Series Dry Battery for Operating
Electric Side and Tail Lamps 163

Fig, 50. — Tools and Supplies for Pneumatic Tire Maintenance, Ap-
plication and Eepair 166

Fig. 51. — Showing Method of Releasing Clincher Casing from Rim.
A — ^Inserting the Tire Iron. B — Raising the Bead. C —
Working the Clincher Bead Over the Edge of the Rim. D —
Method of Guiding Bead Over the Rim 169

List of UltLstrcdions 17

PAGE

Fig. 52. — Proper Methods of Handling Tire Irons in Removing
and Eeplacing Outer Casings on Clincher Kims at A and B.
How Inner Tube May Be Pinched if Tire Iron is Carelessly
Manipulated at C. Inner Tube May Be Pinched if Placed
in Casing Without Being Partially Inflated as at D . . . 171

Fig. 53. — Cross Section of Typical Clincher Tire Showing Defec-
tive Points that Demand Attention When Restoring Tires
to Proper Condition 174

Fig. 54. — Showing the Application of Inner and Outer Casing

Sleeves as a Temporary Repair for Ruptured Outer Casings 176

Fig. 55. — Special Tool Outfit for Repairing Ford Cars ... 179

Fig. 56.— Tools That Will Be Valuable When Overhauling or Re-
pairing Ford Automobiles. A — Special Pliers for Removing
and Inserting Split Pin. B — Chisel and Punch Set. C —
Carbon Scrapers. D — Socket Wrench. E — Bearing Scrapers.
F — Ratchet and Socket Wrench Set. G — Double End Box
Wrench. H — Spark Plug Brush 181

Fig. 57. — Method of Testing Regularity of Engine Action by Hold-
ing Down Coil Vibrators 184

Fig. 58. — Sectional View of Dry Cell Showing Interior Construc-
tion at A and Method of Testing Current Output With
Amperemeter at B 185

Fig. 59. — Showing Methods of Adjusting Air Gaps in Spark Plugs 188

Fig. 60. — Method of Adjusting Transmission Brake Band . . . 199

Fig. 61.— How to Tighten Slipping High Speed Clutch ... 200

Fig. 62. — Testing for Front Wheel Looseness 202

Fig. 63. — Showing Use of Special Ford Wrench in Adjusting Front

Wheel Bearings 203

Fig. 64. — Method of Testing Rear Wheel Brakes, Also Wear in

Axle Bearings 205

Fig. 65. — How to Use Wheel Puller for Removing Wheel From

Taper Axle End 206

Fig. 66. — Wheel Removed to Show Internal Expanding Brake Con-
struction 207

18 List of Illustrations

CHAPTER V

PAGE

Fig. 67. — Showing Method of Providing Boxes for Keeping Parts

Together in Overhauling Cars Systematically .... 212

Fig. 68. — The First Step in Eemoving the Ford Engine From the

Chassis Is to Take the Radiator From the Front of the Frame 214

Fig. 69. — Showing Method of Removing Copper Asbestos Gasket
Used Between Cylinder Head and Cylinder Block Casting
of the Ford Engine 217

Fig. 70. — Method of Removing Inlet and Exhaust Manifold . . 219

Fig. 71. — Valve Chamber Cover Plates Must Be Removed to Gain

Access to the Valve Springs 220

Fig. 72.— How Ford Piston May Be Withdrawn Through Top

of Motor \ 221

Fig. 73. — Bottom View of Ford Engine With Pressed Steel Lower

Crank Case Member Removed 222

Fig. 74. — Method of Removing Carbon Deposits from Piston Top

and Cylinder Block 223

•

Fig. 75. — Method of Compressing Valve Spring in Order to Remove

Valve Seat Pin by Using Ford Valve Spring Lifter . . . 227

Fig. 76. — Special Tool for Raising Valve Springs When Inlet and

Exhaust Manifolds are Taken Off of the Cylinder Block . . 228

Fig. 77. — Showing Use of Valve Seat Reamer for Smoothing Scored

or Pitted Valve Seats 229

Fig. 78.— Showing Use of Special Tool for Grinding Ford Valves . 230

Fig. 79. — Showing Method of Removing Piston Rings Without

Damaging Them 233

Fig. 80. — Showing Method of Testing Main Bearings When Refitting

by Rocking the Crank Shaft by Hand 237

Fig. 81. — Showing Method of Scraping in Main Bearings to Fit

Crank Shaft Journals 241

Fig. 82. — Method of Fastening Magnets in Place on Flywheel. Note
Planetary Triple Gear Assemblies of Transmission in Fore-
ground 242

List of Illustrations 19

PAGE

Fig. 83. — Illustrations Showing Method of Ee-babbitting Connecting
Rod Bearings at A and Method of Testing Connecting Rod
Bearing Parallelism at B 247

Fig. 84. — Connecting Rod Bearings May be Easily Fitted to the
Crank Shaft if This Member is Removed from the Engine and
Supported by Bench Vise 249

Fig. 85. — ^Illustrating Method of Scraping in Connecting Rod Bear-
ings and Tools Used in This Process 250

Pig. 86. — ^Diagram Showing Method of Timing Ford Valves . . 254

Fig. 87. — Copper Asbestos Gaskets Used on Ford Motor . . . 258

Fig. 88. — Group Showing Felt Packings for Ford Power Plant and

Also for Retaining Oil in Running Gear Parts .... 260

Fig. 89. — Plate Showing Parts Comprising the Ford Transmission
When Disassembled at A, and When Joined Together to Form
Various Groups to Facilitate Assembly at C, D and E . . 263

Fig. 90. — Showing How Transmission Cover is Removed to Permit

Reaching Transmission Brake Bands 268

Fig. 91. — Removing Transmission Brake Band for Replacing Fric-
tion Lining 271

Fig. 92. — How Friction Lining is Riveted to Brake Bands . . . 273

Fig. 93. — Rear Axle Partially Disassembled to Show Differential

and Supporting Bearings 275

Fig. 94. — Outlining Method of Ford Front and Rear Spring

Retention 278

THE FORD MODEL T CAR

CHAPTER I

THE FORD CAR, ITS PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Important Components of Any Motor Car — Parts of Ford Automobile
Chassis — The Ford Three Point Suspension System — Frame Assembly
Details — Spring Construction — ^The Ford Body — The Ford Power
Plant.

In order to have any subject easily understood by the
layman, especially if it is a mechanical topic or one with
which the public at large is not thoroughly familiar, it is
always necessary to consider first of all the basic principles
underlying the operation of the mechanism discussed.
Those who are familiar with the subject to a degree may
consider this matter superfluous because it is a review of
things of which they already have some knowledge. The
person who seeks information, especially the purchaser of
an automobile who intends to operate it himself, in many
cases does not have the slightest conception of mechanics.
It is necessary to describe fully the various parts and how
they operate and why they work as they do before any
attempt is made to give suggestions for their care or
operation.

In making repairs or looking for troubles the man
who is familiar with the principles of action of the parts
at fault is nearly always able to locate the trouble whereas
those who are not posted on the methods of working are
at a loss because they do not know where to staiit to Ipok

22 The Ford Model T Car

for derangements. The automobile has been the greatest
popular mechanical educator ever devised, but it is a much
simpler and less expensive process to acquire this knowl-
edge by becoming familiar with the experience of others
instead of learning all the points involved by the slow
and uncertain process of actual personal experience. In
preparing this treatise the writer believes that it will
have more value for most of those it is desired to in-
struct if the assumption is made that the reader knows ab-
solutely nothing regarding automobile construction. For
this reason, the exposition starts with a description of
the parts that are absolutely necessary to secure success-
ful operation of any self-propelled road vehicle, then vari-
ous units of the car discussed are described and their
functions outlined. Endeavor has been made to present
the information in a clear manner and to avoid technicali-
ties. It is desirable, however, that mechanical tenns be
used and all parts called by their correct names, ready
identification being provided by clear, lettered illus-
trations.

Important Components of Any Motor Car. — In this era
of progress, one would hesitate to assert that the motor
car had been perfected or it had reached a finality in de-
sigh, though the experience of the last few years would
justify one assuming that the principles of construction
now applied so successfully may reasonably be considered
permanent. The elements which have been proven essen-
tial to insure successful operation of all self-propelled con-
veyances may be easily defined as follows :

First : The endeavor of modern constructors is to make
all operating parts of such material, size and strength,
that the severe strains imposed by the rough nature of
the average road surface will be resisted adequately and

Automobile Essentials 23

to secure endurance and serviceability under all possible
conditions of operation.

Second: The mechanism should be as simple as it is
possible to make it, as this promotes ease of repairing,
facility in handling, and lessens the liability of trouble
by reducing complication. The parts should be in proper
proportion and arranged in such a manner relative to
each other that one may be removed or replaced without
disturbing other correlated appliances.

Third: The power furnished by the gasoline engine
carried in the frame must be transmitted to the traction
wheels or to the revolving shafts to which they are fastened
with as little friction and power loss as is possible.

Fourth: The two driven wheels (preferably the rear
ones) must be connected to some form of compensating
or balance gear which enables each wheel to revolve in-
dependently of the other at times and at different veloci-
ties, because in turning corners the outer wheel describes
a larger arc and consequently a longer path than the
inner member. The differential gear was one of the most
important elements which made for the successful develop-
ment of the automobile.

Fifth: The steering should be done by the two front
wheels which are carried at the ends of a yoke axle which
is securely fastened to the chassis frame by means of the
springs. The wheels are carried on steering knuckles
which must be arranged to assume different angles when
the vehicle is turning corners or deviates from a straight
path in order to secure positive steering.

Sixth: Springs must be provided which will have suf-
ficient strength and elasticity to neutralize vibration and
allow for unevenness of the road surface by their yielding
qualities and thus reduce body movement. In order to

24 The Ford Model T Car

relieve the machinery, running gear and passengers of
the inevitable vibration which obtains at even moderate
speed on ordinary roads, the wheels should be provided
with very resilient tires, preferably of the pneumatic or
inflated forms for pleasure cars, and cushion or solid
rubber on the heavier and slower-moving motor trucks.

Seventh: The gas supply to the motor, the ignition
of the charge, and the continuation of the cycle of engine
operations should be automatic and require no attention
from the operator after the motor is once started. To
secure continued operation, mechanical means must be
provided for constant lubrication of all moviijg parts.
All components which have movement relative to other
parts should move with as little power loss by friction
as possible, in order to conserve the available motor en-
ergy for tractive purposes. Anti-friction bearings of the
ball or roller type should be employed on all rotating
shafts in the power plant, transmission system, and in the
wheels to save jDOwer.

Eighth: The center of gravity must be carried rela-
tively low, which involves placing the body as close to
the ground as practical considerations will permit. The
wheel base, which is the distance between front and rear
wheel centers, should be long, in order to secure the best
result in tractive effort, steering and comfortable riding.
The power plant and other essential mechanism should be
carried on a frame which will be supported in such a
manner that road shocks will not be transmitted to them
and so coupled together that no frame distortion will pro-
duce disalignment of the driving shafts.

Ninth : The control elements must be designed with a
view to easy handling. This means that the steering gear
should be practically irreversible — i.e., the hand wheel

Ford Chassis Details 25

should not be affected by side movement of the front
wheels, thus relieving the driver's arms of all undue
strain while driving. Motor regulation should be by levers
placed convenient to the driver's hands or feet, and gear
shifting should be accomplished without diflSculty. Pow-
erful brakes must be employed to insure positive check
of vehicle motion whenever it is desired to bring the
conveyance to a stop. It is evident that the levers through
which the brakes are operated should be so proportioned
that a minimum of effort on the part of the operator
will serve to check the vehicle immediately.

Parts of Ford Automobile Chassis. — A brief explanation
of the function of each part of the Ford gasoline car
chassis depicted at Figs. 1 and 2 will serve to afford a
better understanding of the construction of an automobile.
The purpose^ of the front axle is not unlike that of a
horse-drawn vehicle, but it is much different in construc-
tion. The wheels are installed on movable spindles, or
steering knuckles, which are supported by yokes permit-
ting one to move the wheels for steering rather than turn-
ing the entire axle on a fifth wheel, or jack-bolt arrange-
ment, as in a horse-drawn vehicle. This axle is attached
to the frame by spring member which allows a certain
degree of movement without producing corresponding mo-
tion of the frame. The radiator, which is placed directly
over the axle in front of the motor, is employed to hold
the water used in keeping the engine cool, and is an
important part of the heat-radiating system. The start-
ing handle is a crank by which the motor crank shaft is
given sufficient initial movement by the operator to carry
the engine parts through one or more portions' pf -^the
cycle of operations, this starting the engine. The .tiifcar
joins the arms of the steering spindles on which: the

Ford Chassis Details 27

wheels revolve, and insures that these will swing together
and in the same direction, either to the right or left. The
steering link, often called the ''drag link," connects one
of the steering knuckles of the front axle with the steer-
ing gear.

The motor is a four-cylinder four-cycle type, to be
described in proper sequence. The dash is a wooden par-
tition placed back of the power plant to separate the
engine space from the seating compartment. It is em-
ployed to support some of the auxiliary apparatus neces-
sary to motor action or some of the control elements.
The clutch is a device operated by a pedal, which per-
mits the motor power to be coupled to the gearset, and
from thence to the driving wheels, or interrupted at the
will of the operator. It is used in starting and stopping
the car, and whenever the speed is changed. The pedals
are fpot-operated levers, one of which releases the clutch
and applies the slow speed; one is used to reverse the
car, the other applies the running brake on the trans-
mission. The motor control levers on the steering col-
umn are used in conjunction to vary the rotative speed
of the motor, and thus regulate the energy produced in
proportion to the work to be performed. The emergency
brake lever applies a powerful braking effect when it is
desired to stop the car quickly, and also when one wishes
to. lock the brakes if the car movement is arrested on a
down grade. The steering wheel actuates the mechanism
which moves the wheels to the right or left when one
wishes to describe the circle, turn a corner, or otherwise
deviate from a straight line.

The change speed gear is one of the most important
elements of the power transmission system, and in con-
nection with the clutch it is much used in operating and

28 The Ford Model T Car

controlling the vehicle. The function of the frame has
been previously described. The exhaust pipe is employed
to convey the inert gases discharged from the motor
cylinders to a device known as the muffler, which is de-
signed to reduce gas pressure by augmenting the volume,
and thus diminish the noise made as it issues to the at-
mosphere. The driving shaft transmits power from the
change speed gearset to the bevel gearing in the rear
axle. A universal joint is a positive connection which^
permits a certain degree of movement between two shafts
which must be driven at the same speed. One or the
other, or both, may move in a lateral or vertical plane
to a limited extent without interrupting the drive or
cramping the moving parts. The rear construction houses
the differential and driving gears, and the shafts or axles
which transmit the power to the traction wheels.

Brakes are used to retard, or stop the movement of
the wheels, and are operated by rods which transmit the
force the operator applies at the brake pedal or hand
lever to the brake bands. Torque members or radius
rods are used to maintain a definite relation between the
driving gears in the axle and those in gearset, and to
take the driving thrusts off the axle and the strains im-
posed by braking and driving from the springs. The
principles underlying operation of each of the parts shown
and the number of different forms in which they may exist,
will be described more extensively in the chapters dealing
with the various groups.

The Ford Three Point Suspension. — In order to permit
the sale of cars of good quality at moderate prices it is
necessary that the design be simplified to a point where
assembly cost during processes incidental to manufacture
will be kept at a minimum. This elimination of unneces-

■art

ower Crank Csao

Vpppor Omnlc Cbm

Intatce Pips

'p^idiauflt Pipe

Trout Badlus Bod
^pork Plug
idlator Bod.

Crlmder Head Outlet Boaa

' (Radiator Filler Cap

'1-Rftdlal r Filler Flange

-FroDt Pander (!>. H.)
-Fan Belt

.titer Pipe
■Cylinder Cover (Front lend)
Conunutator
-Badtator Inlet Hoae

Wheel
-Starting Crank
"Iteerlna Ball ConnectlnB RoU
-Ftont Sprlns

Steerios Splndla Coanacttnif R
•Front Azia

Three Point Suspension 31

bolted to the frame side member or rest on suitable sup-
porting brackets riveted to the frame side or carried by
the sub-frame. This makes a very rigid construction
when the bolts are tightened down and the engine bed
firmly secured to the frame. While this method of sup-
port is very strong, it has the disadvantage of resisting
any tendency of the frame twisting when the car is op-
erated on unfavorable highway surfaces or when some
one of the wheels passes over an obstruction or drops into
a hollow in the road. These twisting strains stress the
crank case arms and very often will break them off.

It was to eliminate this that the three point suspen-
sion was invented. The four point suspension is found
in most cases in cars where the engine is a separate mem-
ber from the change speed gearing. Where the change
speed mechanism is incorporated as a portion of the power
plant, as is true of the Ford construction, it is possible
to suspend the engine on three points, as sho^?|pn at Fig.
5. The first point is at the front end qf the motor and
consists of a turned cylindrical bearing resting in a trun-
nion block carried by the front cross member. The second
and third points are provided by supporting brackets or
arms of pressed steel which are securely riveted and
brazed to each side of the flywheel housing. These arms
rest upon the frame side member and are rigidly secured
to the frame rail by bolts and lock nuts. Wooden blocks
are placed between the frame side channels and one bolt
passes through the wood block horizontally, while another
passes through the top and bottom of the frame side
member vertically.

There is some difference in construction between the
two points of support attached to the flywheel housing
and the single or first point of support at the front end

Fleooihility of Ford Running Gear 38

of the engine. While this holds the motor firmly in
place, it permits a certain rocking action or movement of
either front corner of the frame without likewise affecting
the power plant. The front end bearing rests in a trun-
nion box made with a cap much in the same manner as
one of the main crank shaft bearings of the engine. This
is made in two sections, the lower or bed section being
bolted to the front cross member of the frame, while the
upper half, which is removable when it is desired to take
out the power plant, is called the crank case front bearing
cap, and is bolted to the lower member. By having a
trunnion joint the tisvist imparted to the frame by inequal-
ities of the road surface are not conveyed to the crank
case as with a four point extension. For example, if the
right wheel is raised six inches and the left wheel drops
to the same amount, there will be a difference in level 6f
one foot between them. This condition often obtains when
driving a car on rutty roads, and in this case the front
cross member of the frame moves on the crank case bear-
ing, but does not twist the motor to any extent from its
normal horizontal position.

The front axle is also supported at three points, two
of these, which are shown in Fig. 6, being to the front
spring by means of shackle links attached to suitable
forged hanger members bolted to the axle. This makes
two points of support for the front spring. As the cross
spring is not of such construction that it will push the
front axle as do the semi-elliptic springs used in cars of
conventional design which are placed on each side of the
frame running parallel to the frame side member, and
having the axle fastened at their centers ; it is necessary
to provide a radius or push rod construction which is in
the form of a V-shaped member of steel tubing terminat-

From Cross Mcj.ib.

rig, 5. — plan Vf«* of Toti Frame with Power Plant and Bear Axle in
Race StLowlug Three Folut Suspension Principle Utilized in This

Ford Radius Rod Construction 35

ing in a ball at its apex and attached to the front spring
supporting members at its ends. This triangular radius
member serves to take the push of the chassis and move
the axle forward as the car is driven in that direction.
The ball rests in a socket member attached to the lower
part of the flywheel casing of the engine as clearly shown
at Fig. 3. It will be ap][fcrent that this method of sup-
port permits the front axle to move up or down or for one
end to be higher than the other without tending to twist
the frame as much as would be the case if the usual system
of semi-elliptic front springs was used. A certain amount
of twisting is unavoidable so the front axle three point
suspension in connection with that of the motor insures
that no strains will come on the crank case because of this
varying frame distortion.

The rear axle assembly which also includes the driving
shaft and its supporting housing is also fastened to the
frame by three points. Two of these are at the axle
where the single rear spring member is shackled to drop-
forged steel hangers secured to brake shoe retainijig plates
while the third point of support is at a ball joint member
attached to the rear of the transmission case. This ball
joint serves to enclose the universal joint and performs
the same function for the rear end of the car that the ball
joint on the front end of the flywheel case performs for
the front end of the car. The rear radius rod system is
also triangular in shape, the rod members extending from
the brake carrying castings on the ends of the axles to the
flange fitting just back of the casting forming the ball
part of the joint at the front end of the pinion driv^ shaft
housing. This construction is clearly outlined in sectional
view of the complete car shown on folding plate Fig. 2,
and also in the plan view, Fig. 5. It mil be apparent that

86 The Ford Model T Car

this three point support of the front axle, the power
plant and the rear axle makes for a construction of great
flexibility which comhines the very desirable element of
strength and endurance without the undesirable one of
excessive weight. The lightness and ability of the frame

IJIMfi 8f>ACMrT

and chassis mechanism to endure under the twists and
strains incidental to rough road work has made the Ford
car a practical conveyance for unfavorable, as well as fav-
orable, road conditions, and enhances the comfort of the
occupants under all conditions. As an assembling propo-

Frame Assembly Details Bi

sition the three point suspension system is one that lends
itself readily to quantity production, and if it is easily
put together it is equally t^;ue that taking it apart will
offer no difficulty. For example, if it is desired to remove
the rear axle or the front axle from the Ford chassis the
first step is to undo the ball and socket joint at the end
of the radius rod and to i;emove one half of each spring"
shackle in the case of the front axle, this setting it entirely
free and permitting its easy withdrawal. In addition to
undoing the front ball housing at the end of the pinion
drive shaft housing of the rear axle and the spring shackle
member it is also necessary to uncouple the brake rods
operating the rear wheel brakes at the point where they
attach to the cross shaft actuated by the hand lever
clearly shown in Fig. 1.

Frame Assembly Details. — The frame of the Ford car
is a very simple member, and owing to the three point
system of attachment of components is made light and
flexible to a degree. It consists essentially of two long
straight side members and front and rear cross members.
The material used for the side members is a channel sec-
tion pressed steel, the frame side rails being about 100
inches long. The cross members are not straight, as is
the case of the side members, but are bent as indicated
in Figs. 6 and 7. The front cross member is bent down
to offer a support for the simple semi-elliptic cross spring
while the rear member has an upward bend to fit the arch
of the rear spring. The corners of the frame are securely
braced by gusset plates or re-enforcing brackets, as indi-
cated in Fig. 5. These are securely riveted to the frame
side and cross members, the cross members also being
attached to the side rails by hot riveting. Body supporting
brackets are attached to the side rails to which the body

88 The Ford Model T Car

portion is fastened by means of bolts. These are lield
in place by riveting, as are the running board supportii^
irons. «

Spring Construction. — The first point that strikes the
person examining the Ford car carefully for the first

^W^y ylGNITION COIL ■

■■■B^^H .SPRING CLIP V

^~^SL /I 1 ,.1 .ir REA R SPRING A

fcll^

dUi

W! ' mc

■Pr /Jd '"

^gi 11 1

f -^

i.'!l^■^''«HSL*^>^" >1 f

^HU DRIVE SHAFT \ ^^H
^^■V HOUSING DIFFEfiENriAL H^H
^^^B HOUSINO ^^^H

time, and one which serves as a ready means of identifi-
cation, is the method of springing employed which is un-
conventional, though exceedingly practical. The springs
of practically all automobiles are of the laminated type
and are a built-up construction composed of long, flat sec-

The Chassis Supporting Springs 39

tions of tempered high carbon or alloy steel that are called
** leaves." The material used in the Ford springs is
vanadium steel, an alloy which is said to possess greater
endurance to continual deflection and rebound than ordi-
nary high carbon steel. The Ford front spring is a semi-
elliptic member, which term is applied to the spring ac-
cording to the arc of an ellipse in which they are formed.
A full elliptic spring would be one composed of two semi-
elliptic members placed in such relation that they would
produce a flattened circle or ellipse. A spring which is
composed of one-half of a full elliptic member is called
a semi-elliptic spring.

In common practice the center portion of the semi-
elliptic spring rests on the axle of the car, the front end
or eye being secured to the spring horn by a bolt while
the rear end is attached to the frame by a shackle or
hinge joint which is necessary to provide for the length-
ening of the spring as it deflects under load, the tendency
of the load being to straighten out the arch. In the Ford
car the eyes of the front spring are shackled to the hang-
ers on the front axle while the center portion is securely
held inside of the channel section of the front frame cross
member by means of U-shaped spring dips. This means
that the semi-elliptic spring is inverted from the position
it usually occupies on other cars. The front springs con-
sist of seven leaves or laminations of graduated length,
the longest being at the bottom and having eye members
formed at each end, the shortest leaf being placed at the
top. The seven leaves are held together by a tie bolt
passing through their centers, which keeps the spring in
shape whenever it is desired to unloosen the spring clips
to remove it from the frame. Rebound clips are also
prQvided to keep the spring leaves from spreading apart

40 The Ford Model T Car

under violent upward throw of the chassis frame. In
order not to restrict free movement of the spring both
front and rear shackles are provided with oil cups so that
the shackle bolts may be kept properly lubricated at all
times. It will be apparent, however, that spring move-
ment must necessarily be limited, and that the more resil-
ient a spring is the greater the degree of movement.
The springs are constantly in action when the vehicle is
used, and practically all of the comfort of the occupants
is dependent upon them.

The rear spring shown at Fig. 7 is also a cross mem-
ber, but it is not of the same semi-elliptic form the front
spring is. It has a decided arch at its center, designed
to conform to the arched portion of the rear cross mem-
ber, to which the center of the rear spring is secured by
substantial spring clips. The spring perches or hangers
are drop forgings similar in form to the front members,
and have a boss pierced with a hole through which the
bolt of the spring hanger or shackle member passes. The
Ford rear spring perches are securely held in the brake
retaining plate castings at the ends of the axle.

The Ford Body. — Practically the only part of an auto-
mobile that resembles in any way the horse-drawn vehi-
cles they supercede is the body or carriage work portion
employed for conveying the passengers. The body of the
Ford car is clearly shown at Fig. 2. The sectional view
gives an idea of the tufted upholstery and the method
of constructing the seat cushions. The body is usually
composed of a framework of wood, to which formed steel
sheets are fastened, these being termed panels. By the
development of large stamping presses it is possible to
form the entire panel of a rear seat member, for instance,
out of a single sheet of steel so that practically no fitting

The Ford Body Construction 41

is necessary except to fasten it securely to the frame
by means of small screws or nails. The woqden frame
members serve as supports for the floor boards, and also
for the seat cushions. The doors by which the front or
rear compartments are reached are light wooden frame-
work covered with sheet metal and secured to the main
body frame by simple hinges. The upholstering of the
Ford car is a fabric made in imitation of leather, which
is tufted and filled with curled hair in the fashion of regu-
lar carriage upholstery.

The seat cushions are provided with a large number
of coiled springs which are intended to support the passen-
ger 's weight and to supplement the action of the harsher-
acting, stiflfer chassis-supporting springs. These spiral
springs absorb many of the minor shocks which would
interfere with the comfort of the passengers if no springs
were provided. It will be apparent that the passenger
has three independent resilient supporting members be-
tween his body and the road. The pneumatic tires on the
wheels form the primary shock-absorbing members, while
the chassis springs are the secondary shock-absorbing
members. The seat cushion springs and the curled hair
padding are the final check against road vibration. In
the Ford body the front floor boards are entirely remov-
able, if desired, in order to gain access to the change speed
gearing and the universal joint casing which are imme-
diately under them. When the front seat cushion is lifted
out, a hinged door permits of reaching the gasoline tank
for filling. Lifting the rear cushion discloses another
hinged door which provides communication to a com-
partment extending the full width of the rear seat suit-
able for carrying tools, supplies and various articles of
equipment. The windshield and top are not shown in

The Ford Power Plant 43

illustration, though these are fastened to the body mem-
ber. The sills of the body are provided with brackets of
pressed steel, which are securely bolted to the wood and
which rest on the body supporting brackets riveted to the
car frame. The front end of the body is attached to the
dashboard by angle irons. When it is desired to give
the chassis a thorough overhauling it is not difficult to
remove the body by loosening all of the body-retaining
bolts, also the members holding the body to the dash-
board assembly, which remains on the frame after the
body is taken off.

The Ford Power Plant. — The motive power of the Ford
car consist of what is known as a * * unit power plant, ' ' in-
corporating the engine or power-producing member and
the change speed gearing and clutch or power transmit-
ting member. A side view of the engine is shown at
Fig. 8, this showing clearly the parts that are readily
discernible from the outside. The engine is a four-cylin-
der type, having the cylinders cast in one block which is
integral with the top half of the engine crank case. As
all the valves are on one side of the cylinder, it is known
as an **L block'' construction. The bore of the cylinder
is 334'', the stroke of the piston is 4". The engine is
capable of attaining high rotative speed and will develop
'well over 20 h. p.

The advantage of including the change speed gearing
and clutch in a unit with the engine is that there is no
danger of loss of alignment of these members due to
frame distortion as is possible when the power-producing
and transmission elements are separate units, each having
its independent means of support. The parts of the
Ford power plant assembly are lined up properly when
the engine is built, and there is no possibility of loss of

44 The Ford Model T Car

this alignment until the engine has been in service a long
enough time so that the bearings wear and permit the
parts to get out of line. Long before this lad^ of align-
ment becomes serious the motorist will be warned that
the bearings require refitting by noisy action of the power
plant or change speed gearing.

The power plant, as shown, while complete in itself
would not be operative unless a number of auxiliary mech-
anisms and devices are provided. In* order to insure en-
gine action it is necessary to supply the cylinders with
a combustible gas, which is done by the carburetion sys-
tem. The gas must be exploded in the cylinder to produce
power, which is the function of the ignition group. In
order to keep the engine at the proper working tempera-
ture and reduce internal friction, lubrication means must
be provided, while a water-cooling system prevents the
cylinders and combustion head from overheating. The
basic principles of engine operation, also those under-
lying the action of the auxiliary groups, will be fully de-
scribed in proper sequence.

CHAPTEE n

THE ENGINE AND AUXILIAEY GROUPS

How the Engine Works — ^Engine Parts and Their Functions — ^The Fuel
Supply System — ^Principles of Carburetion Outlined — ^Utility of Gaso-
line Strainer — ^What the Carburetor Should Do — The Ford Float
Feed Carburetor — ^The Ford Ignition System — ^Induction Coil System
Action Explained — ^Why a Magneto Is Used on the Ford — Wiring
Dry Cell Batteries — Master Vibrator Systems — ^Why Cooling Systems
Are Necessary — Cooling Systems Generally Used — ^Ford Water Cir-
culation Methods — Theory of Lubrication — Derivation of Lubricants
— ^How Ford Power Plant is Lubricated — ^The Ford Mufller.

The principles of action of all internal combustion en-
gines are easily understood if one compares the effect
produced by the explosion of the gas in the interior of
the engine with the known effect obtained by firing any
other explosive, such as gunpowder. Gasoline when
mixed with air and compressed is highly explosive, and
can be easily ignited by an electric spark. An explosion
results from violent expansion which occurs where con-
fined gases are fired. Combustion may exist in a number
of different states, slow combustion, as the rotting of
wood or rusting of iron; fast combustion, such as the
burning of wood, coal or other fuels, and instantaneous
combustion, which is that produced by igniting gunpowder
or other explosives.

The manner in which a compressed gas can be made
to give power may be easily understood by using as an
illustration the difference between the noise of a fire-
cracker that is in good condition and the *'fizz'' which
results when an unexploded fire cracker is cracked open

46 The Ford Model T Car

by an economical child and the gunpowder thus exposed
is ignited. The reason we have noise when the fire cracker
explodes is because the rapid combustion of the gunpow-
der in the confined spaces of the firecracker interior
bursts the containing walls and produces a loud noise.
In other words, the gunpowder has been compacted or
compressed to a degree before ignition. When the powder
is lighted in the firecracker that has been broken open,
there is no noise to speak of because there is nothing
to restrain the gases produced by burning the powder.

Another illustration that simplifies the method of op-
eration of a gas engine is to compare it with a muzzle-
loading gun or cannon. After tlie charge of gunpowder
is introduced at the open end of the barrel it is necessary
to ram this tightly in place in order to compact it before
the shot is introduced. After the fuse is lighted or firing-
pin depressed the powder explodes with great energy and
as the parts of the gun barrel surrounding the combus-
tion chamber are sufficiently strong to withstand the force
of the explosion, the movable member or shot is violently
ejected from the gun barrel. If the same amount of gun-
powder used to charge the gun was placed on a piece
of paper and set afire, the only result would be a sudden
flash or flame that would not be accompanied by an explo-
sion, nor would it have any appreciable force because
the gases are not confined.

In any internal combustion engine the gas charge is
first drawn into a cylinder, which may be compared with
the barrel of a gun by the suction effect of a downwardly
moving piston member, and when the piston has reached
the limit of its travel in one direction its motion is re-
versed and it moves back and starts to compress the gas
previously inspired. As soon as the gas is properly com

Four Cycle Engine Action 47

pressed, which means that its volume has been reduced
and its pressure increased, an electric spark takes place
in the interior of the combustion chamber and the result-,
ing explosion of the gas sends the piston violently down-
ward, and this motion, through the medium of a connect-
ing rod, imparts a rotary movement to a crank member.

The difference between an internal combustion engine
and an external combustion engine is easily understood
if one knows that the steam engine operates on the latter
principle. With the steam engine, power is derived by
admitting steam to the cylinder, which is obtained from a
separate boiler member. This is produced by the evap-
oration of water by a fire under the boiler. It is evident
that the power is really obtained by the combustion of
fuel, the steam being only a flexible medium that has
transformed the heat of the fire into the power. The
steam bears against a movable piston member in the
steam engine cylinder, and the movement of the piston
is transformed into mechanical energy at the crank shaft
in the same manner as in a gas engine. Wherever the
fuel is burnt directly in the cylinder instead of under
another part of the power plant so that its heat may be
expended directly to produce piston movement with mini-
mum power loss, the engine is called, an ^'internal com-
bustion engine."

How All Automobile Engines Work. — ^It is evident that
burning powder in the air will produce a certain amount of
energy, but as the explosion takes place in the open there
w^ill be nothing to restrain the pressure, and just as soon
as the powder is lighted, any energy evolved by the com-
bustion is dissipated into the atmosphere instead of the
force being directed against a yielding member such as
a shot. This bullet is forced out of the gun barrel, not

48 The Ford Model T Car

only by tne gas pressure which results as soon as the
powder is exploded, but also by the expansion of the gases
generated by combustion which tends to accelerate its
motion toward the open end of the barrel. As the shot
moves toward the end and the gas occupies more space
its pressure becomes less, and when the ball leaves the
mouth of the gun there is very little power remaining in
the moving gas. There is sufficient pressure, however,
so that the gas rushes out of the interior and the barrel
is thus cleared of inert products which have no more
useful force. The action of a modem repeating rifle is
somewhat different than that of a muzzle-loader, because
the powder is already compressed in metal shells which
are introduced at the breech of the gun instead of at the
muzzle. A number of shells are carried in a magazine,
and after one of these explodes the recoil due to the
explosion of the gas supplies another charged shell to the
breech and the operation of firing the gun may be re-
peated as long as the supply of ammunition in the maga-
zine lasts.

The modern four-cycle gasoline engine follows the
action of both the old type muzzle-loader and the more
modern form in which the shell is introduced at the
breech. Referring to sketches at Fig. 9, we can compare
the action of a simple four-stroke engine with that of a
gun. The principal elements of a gas engine shown are
not difficult to identify, and their functions are easily
defined. In place of the barrel of the gun one has a
smoothly machined cylinder in which a movable barrel-
shaped element fitting the bore closely may be likened
to a bullet or shot. It differs in an important respect,
however, as while the shot is discharged from the mouth
of the gun the piston member sliding inside of the cylinder

Fig. 8. — Simple Diagrams Showing the Various Cycles of Operation
Necessary to Obtain an Explosion in the Four Stroke Oasoline En-
gine Cylinder. A — Suction. B — Compression. C — Expansion. D —

50 The Ford Model T Car

cannot leave it, as its movements back and forth from
the open to the closed end, and back again, are limited
by smiple mechanical connection or linkage which com-
prises a crank and connecting rod. It is by this means
that the reciprocating movement of the piston is trans-
formed into a rotary motion of the crank shaft. The
flj^ieel is a heavy member attached to the crank shaft
which has energy stored in its rim as it revolves, and
the momentum of this revolving mass tends to equalize
the intermittent pushes on the piston head produced by
^ the succeeding explosions of gasoline vapor in the cylin-
der. If any explosive is placed in the chamber formed
between the piston and closed end of the cylinder and
exploded, the piston would be the only part that would
yield to the pressure which would produce a downward
movement. As the piston is forced down, the crank shaft
is turned by the connecting rod. This part is hinged at
both ends, so it is free to oscillate as the crank turns,
and thus the piston may slide back and forth, while the
crank shaft is rotating or describing a curvilinear path.

In addition to the simple elements described it is
evident that a gasoline engine must have other parts.
The most important of these are the valves, of which
there are two to each cylinder. One closes the passage
connecting to the gas supply and opens during one stroke
of the piston in order to let the explosive gas into the
combustion chamber. The other member, or exhaust
valve, serves as a cover for the opening through which
the burnt gases can leave the cylinder after their work
is done. The spark plug is a simple device which may
be compared to the percussion cap of a gun. It permits
one to produce an electric spark in the cylinder when
the piston is at the best point to utilize the pressure which

How Ford Engine Works 51

obtains when the compressed gas is fired. The valves ar€)t
open one at a timQ, the inlet valve being depressed from
its seat while the cylinder is filling and the exhaust valve
is opened when the cylinder is being cleared. They are
normally kept seated by means of compression springs.
In the simple motor shown at Fig. 9, the inlet valve
operated by means of a pivoted rocker arm moved by a
cam which turns at half the speed of the crank shaft.
The exhaust valve operates in a similar manner, as will
be explained in proper sequence.

Considering the view shown at Fig. 9, A, the first
necessary operation is charging the cylinder with explo-
sive material. The piston is at the top of its stroke and
it moves toward the open end of the cylinder. The en-
gine works as a pump and the piston draws in a charge
of combustible gas through the open intake valve which
is in connection with the vaporizer or device which fur-
nishes the gas. The valve opening is assisted by a light
vacuum or suction existing when the piston has traveled
down a certain portion of itsirt»ke, this supplementing
the cam action as the outside airfpressure is greater than
that in the cylinder. The med&anical pressure produced
by the cam is greater than the tension of the spring, which
tends to keep the valve closed and that member is de-
pressed from its seat and gas drawn in by the piston. At
the end of the intake stroke, the start of which is shown at
Fig. 9, A, and after the cylinder has filled with gas, the
pressure inside and outside is the same, the cam pressure
is released, and the valve spring closes the intake valve.

As the exhaust valve spring is very strong, this mem-
ber has not been lifted from its seat by the difference in
pressure during the suction stroke. The exhaust valve
is opened by mechanical means solely and only when

52 The Ford Model T Car

operated by the cam and push-rod mechanism. The con-
dition in the cylinder of the gas engine after the piston
has reached the bottom of its stroke is very much the same
that which obtains in a gun of the muzzle-loading type
after the explosive charge has been introduced. We have
learned that to obtain power from gunpowder that it was
necessary to compact it firmly in the combustion chamber
of the gun. The gasoline gas which has been taken into
the engine cylinder must also be compressed before it is
ignited in order to obtain power. It is compacted into
one-third or one-quarter of its former volume, and wl^ere-
as its pressure is about fifteen pounds per square inch
before the volume is reduced, at the end of the com-
pression stroke of the piston the pressure will be in-
creased to forty-five, sixty, and even seventy-five pounds
per square inch. At the end of this compression stroke,
the start of which is shown at B, Fig. 9, the conditions in
the engine cylinder are the same as those which prevail
in the barrel of the gun after the powder has been tightly
rammed in the closed end of the gun barrel and the wad-
ding and ball forced in on top of it. The explosion of the
gas by the electric spark is shown at C, while the begin-
ning of the exhaust stroke is depicted at D.

With a one-cylinder, four-cycle engine it will be appar-
ent that we have one useful power stroke in every four
strokes of the piston. These four reciprocating move-
ments are transformed into two complete rotary move-
ments of the crank shaft to which the connecting rod is
fastened. If we have a two-cylinder engine we can ob-
tain one explosion for each revolution of the fly wheel
or crank shaft and a more even turning effort and stead-
ier power application will result. By using four cylin-
ders it is possible to have one delivering power right after

How Ford Engine Works 53

its neighbor leaves off and so a reasonably constant turn-
ing moment or more steady power delivery is possible
than can be obtained with either a one- or two-cylinder
engine. In the Ford four-cylinder engine one obtains
two explosions for each revolution of the flywheel. The
position of the various pistons and their relation to each
other when the front cylinder is about to fire is clearly

'E/plaalon Strakt EihauatStralie

Compriaaian Stnlie MaksStrolm

Jaekn

afiL

'^^£:

Fig. 10. — Diagram Showing tlie Relation of tlie Pistons and Cntnk Sbaft
Tbrows of the ToxA Tour Cylinder Motor when Piston No. 1 is shout
to KeceiTe the Force of aas Exploded in the Cwnhnstton Chamber.

shown at Fig. 10. Pistons Nos. 1 and 4 are at the top
of the stroke as the crank pins operating them are on
the same plane. Pistons Nos. 2 and 3 are at the bottom
of the stroke as their crank pins are on the same line.
It will be evident that the crank shaft of a four-cylinder
engine must have four crank throws, one for each piston
member.

54 The Ford Model T Car

In the Ford engine the firing order is 1, 2, 4, 3, which
means that the front cylinder fires first, then the second
cylinder, then the fourth cylinder, and lastly the third
cylinder. The four operations of the cycle — suction, com-
pression, explosion and exhaust — are repeated in regular
order in each of the four cylinders according to the firing
order. The pistons move downward during the explosion
and intake strokes and they move upward during the com-
pression and exhaust strokes. As can be readily ascer-
tained from Fig. 10, when piston No. 1 is at the top of its
stroke with the gas above it in the combustion chamber
fully compressed and ready for ignition, piston No. 2 is
at the bottom of the suction stroke and just at the be-
ginning of its compression stroke. Both valves in cyl-
inders Nos. 1 and 2 are closed. When the piston in cyl-
inder No. 3 starts moving up, it will force the burnt gas
out of cylinder No. 3, through the open exhaust valve.
Piston No. 3 is starting on its exhaust stroke while piston
No. 2 is moving in the same direction, only performing
its compression stroke. Piston No. 4 is moving in the
same direction as piston No. 1, which is about to be forced
down by the pressure of the exploded gas, and as the inlet
valve is opened in cylinder No. 4 a charge of gas will be
drawn in from the carburetor when the piston moves
down.

We have different conditions in the various cylinders,
as follows: During the first half of the first revolution
of the motor crank shaft, piston No. 1 is on its explosion
stroke. No. 2 is compressing the gas, piston No. 3 is push-
ing out burned gas, while piston No. 4 is drawing in a
fresh charge. During the second half of the first revolu-
tion of the crank shaft, during which the pistons reverse
from the position shown in Fig. 10, piston No. 1 is about

Ford Engine Parts and Functions 55

to clear the cylinder of burnt gas, piston No. 2 is to receive
the force of the explosion, piston No. 3 is to draw in a
fresh charge, while piston No. 4 is about to compress the
gas taken in on the preceding down stroke. At the be-
ginning of the first half of the second revolution of the
crank shaft the pistons are again in the positions shown
at Fig. 10, though the functions they are performing are
not the same. Piston No. 1 is about to draw in a fresh
charge of gas. Piston No. 2 is about to force out exhaust
gas. Piston No. 3 is about to compress a charge, while
piston No. 4 is in position to be acted on by the explosion
that is to take place in cylinder No. 4 as soon ai^the gas
is ignited. During the second half of the second revolu-
tion, piston No. 1 is compressing a charge, piston No. 2
is sucking in gas, piston No. 3 is being acted on by an
explosion, while cylinder No. 4, in which a charge has
exploded on the previous stroke of the piston, is being
cleared of burnt gas. It will be apparent that by using
four cylinders, as in the Ford motor, practically steadv
power application is obtained.

Engine Parts and Their Functions. — ^A part sectional
view of the Ford power plant is presented at Fig. 11,
with practically all motor parts clearly outlined. The
functions of the principal elements have been previously
described, but in addition to these there are a number of
minor parts which are equally necessary to secure effi-
cient engine action. For example, each piston is pro-
vided with three packing rings fitting into grooves ma-
chined around each piston, two being above the piston
pin and one below that member. The purpose of these
packing rings is to prevent escape of the gas past the
pistons on the compression or explosion strokes. It would
not be possible to secure a practically gas tight joint

Ford Engine Parts and Functions 57

without these rings because the piston could not be fitted
so tightly to the cylinder that it would retain the gas.
There would be considerable friction between the piston
and cylinder walls, and in addition much power would
be consumed because of this retarding influence which
would increase as the piston became heated and expanded.
By using packing rings, it is possible to make the piston
enough smaller than the cylinder bore so that even when
heated and expanded to its limit it will not seize or bind
in the cylinder as long as lubrication is properly main-
tained. The piston rings are sufficiently elastic owing to
a slotted opening in each ring to allow springing them
over the piston when it is necessary to remove them
for cleaning or examination. Another function of the pis-
ton ring is to take the wear caused to the rapid sliding
movement of the piston. It is easier to renew relatively
cheap piston rings instead of supplying new piston cast-
ings to compensate for wear after the engine has been'
in use for a time.

The connecting rods are attached to the pistons by
the medium of a piston pin which is clamped in an eye
at the upper end of the connecting rod and which oscil-
lates in bronze bushings forced into the piston bosses.
The connecting rod is a vanadium steel drop forging pro-
vided with a capped babbit bearing at its lower end, where
it encircles the crank pin of the crank shaft. The cylin-
der unit consists of two members, an iron cylinder block
which is cast integral with the upper half of the crank
case and the cast iron cylinder head which is a removable
member that can be taken off to provide easy access to the
interior of the combustion chamber when carbon deposits
must be cleaned out or the valves ground. The retaining
bolts holding the cylinder head in place are clearly shown

Combustion chambcrs

EXHAUST PIPE
PiSTQNS

Fig. 12. — Depleting tbe Distinctive Design of the Ford Motor wMcIi
Employs a Bemovable Crllnder Head to Permit Beady Access to tli«
Combustion. Cbambers, YalveB and Piston Farts.

Ford Valve Action 59

at the top of Fig. 12, while the appearance of the inside
of the cylinder block when the cylinder head is removed
is outlined in the lower portion of the illustration. Two
valves are provided for each cylinder, these being side
by side, all on the same side of the cylinder. The one
that admits the fresh charge from the carburetor is called
the ** intake, '^ whereas the one through which the ex-
ploded gas is driven out and which opens the passage
between the combustion chamber and the exhaust mani-
fold is called the ** exhaust" valve.

The sectional view of the cylinder at Fig. 13, C, shows
very clearly the manner in which the valve is installed,
no valve seating spring being shown in order to simplify
the illustration. Both inlet and exhaust valves are kept
seated by means of coil springs which bear against a cap
carried at the lower end of the valve stem. The appear-
ance of the valve and its operating plunger is clearly
shown at A, Fig. 13. The valves are opened at the proper
time by the action of a simple member called a cam. This
is of the form shown at Fig. 13, B, and consists of an
approximately circular member except for a raised por-
tion at one point on its periphery. One cam is provided
for each valve, there being eight cams in the Ford en-
gine all formed ' integrally with the cam shaft. As will
be apparent by referring to B, Fig. 13, the valve plunger
is raised when the pointed portion of the cam passes
under it.

The cam shaft is revolved at half the crank shaft
speed, and is driven by means of a large gear which meshes
with a pinion half its size called the small time gear
keyed to the crank shaft. An important point to observ^e
is that the valves are properly timed. This may be easily
determined by checking to see if the factory timing has

Fig. 13, — Sliowing Method of Ford Valve Construction and Operation.

Ford Engine Parts and Functions ' 61

been disturbed. The timing is easily accomplished by
having the tooth on the small time gear marked with a
fit between two teeth on the large timing gear at a cor-
responding point. At this time the first cam on the
cam shaft should point in a direction opposite from the
zero marks, as shown at Fig. 13, C. The points of open-
ing and closing of the valves and the troubles that are apt
to materialize in these members will be discussed fully
in the chapter on Engine Maintenance.

The crank shaft is one of the most important members
of the engine, because it receives all the power delivered
to it by the pistons and conveys the energy to the trans-
mission gearing from which the drive is taken to the rear
wheels of the car. The crank shaft, which is a vanadium
steel forging, is supported by three m^in bearings, one
at each end and one at the center. The flywheer member
attached to the crank shaft serves to equalize the power
application and steady the action of the engiije as it
serves to keep the crank shaft moving the brief intervals
of time between the ending of one explosion and the be-
ginning of the next one. The manifolds are pipes used
to convey the gas in or out of the cylinder. The intake
pipe is an aluminum or cast iron member that conveys
the fresh gas from the carburetor to the inlet valve cham-
bers. The exhaust pipe directs the burnt gas to the muf-
fler. The four-blade, belt-driven fan at the front end of
the motor forms part of the engine-cooling system. The
starting crank is provided so the engine can be set in
motion by hand to move the pistons until an explosion is
obtained when it is desired to start it. The various parts
of the transmission gear and control assembly will be
described in the next chapter. Access to the interior of
the crank case is obtained by removing a pressed steel

62 The Ford Model T Car

plate on the bottom of the engine. The valve springs may
be reached by removing steel plates covering the chambers
in which they are housed. The inlet and exhaust pipes
are held in place by simple clamp or stirrup members
while the cylinder head is secured to the cylinder casting
by substantial removable retaining bolts. The lower part
of the engine crank case, which is a steel stamping, is
fastened to the upper portion by another series of re-
movable machine bolts. If the illustration at Fig. 11 is
studied carefully no difficulty should be experienced in
identifying the various parts of the Ford engine and un-
derstanding the work they do.

The Ford Carburetion System. — There is no appliance
that has more material value upon the efficiency of the
internal combustion motor than the carburetor or vapor-
izer which supplies the explosive gas to the cylinders. It
is only in recent years that engineers have realized the
importance of using carburetors that are efficient and
that are so strongly made that there will be little liability
of derangement. As the power obtained from the gas en-
gine depends upon the combustion of fuel in the cylinders,
it is evident that if the gas supplied does not have the
proper proportions of elements to insure rapid combus-
tion the efficiency of the engine will be low. When a gas
engine is used as a stationary installation it is possible
to use ordinary illuminating or natural gas for fuel, but
when this prime mover is applied to automobile or marine
service it is evident that considerable difficulty would be
experienced in carrying enough compressed coal gas to
supply the engine for even a very short trip. Fortu-
nately, the development of the internal combustion motor
was not delayed by the lack of suitable fuel. Engineers
were familiar with properties of certain liquids which gave

Principles of Carburetion Outlined 63

off vapors that could be mixed with air to form an ex-
plosive gas which burned very well in the engine cylinders.
A very small quantity of such liquids would suffice for very
satisfactory periods of engine operation. The problem to
be solved before these liquids could be applied in a prac-
tical manner was to evolve suitable apparatus for vaporiz-
ing them without waste. Among the liquids that can be
combined with air and burned, gasoline is the most com-
mon and is the fuel utilized by the majority of internal
combustion engines employed in self-propelled convey-
ances.

Principles of Carburetion Outlined. — The process of car-
buretion is combining the volatile vapors which evaporate
from the hydrocarbon liquids with certain proportions of
air to form an inflammable gas. The quantities of air
needed vary with different liquids and some mixtures burn
quicker than do other combinations of air and vapor.
Combustion is simply burning and as we have seen, it may
be rapid, moderate, or slow. Mixtures of gasoline and air
burn quickly, in fact the combustion is so rapid that it is
instantaneous and we obtain what is commonly termed
an *' explosion. " Therefore the explosion of gas in the
automobile engine cylinder which produces the power
due to a combination of chemical elements which produce
heat. If the gasoline mixture is not properly proportion(
the rate of burning will vary, and if the mixture is eithei
too rich or too weak the energy of the explosion is re-
duced and the amount of power applied to the piston is
decreased proportionately.

In determining the proper proportions of gasoline and
air, one must take the chemical composition of gasoline
into account. The ordinary liquid used for fuel is said to
contain about eighty-four per cent, carbon and sixteen per

64 The Ford Model T Car

cent, hydrogen. Air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen
and the former has a great aflBnity or combining power
with the two constituents of hydrocarbon liquids. There-
fore, what we call an explosion is merely an indication that
oxygen in the air has combined with the carbon and hydro-
gen of the gasoline.

In figuring the proper volume of air to mix with a given
quantity of fuel one takes into account the fact that one
pound of hydrogen requires eight pounds of oxygen to
burn it, and one pound of carbon needs two and one third
pounds of oxygen to insure its combustion. Air is com-
posed of one part of oxygen to three and one half por-
tions of nitrogen by weight. Therefore, for each pouud
of oxygen one needs to burn hydrogen or carbon four and
one half pounds of air must be allowed. To insure com-
bustion of one pound of gasoline which is composed of
hydrogen and carbon we must furnish about ten pounds
of air to burn the carbon and about six pounds of air to
insure combustion of hydrogen, the other component of
gasoline. This means that to burn one pound of gasoline
one must provide about sixteen pounds of air.

While one does not usually consider air as having
much weight, at a temperature of sixty-two degrees
Fahrenheit about fourteen cubic feet of air will weigh
a pound, and to burn a pound of gasoline one would re-
quire about two hundred cubic feet of air. This amount
will provide for combustion theoretically, but it is common
practice to allow twice this amount because the element
nitrogen, which is the main constituent of air, is an inert
gas which instead of aiding combustion, acts as a deterrent
of burning. In order to be explosive, gasoline vapor must
be combined with certain quantities of air. Mixtures that
are rich in gasoline ignite quicker than those which have

I'.

5l ImI
5- jl|| lis i

66 The Ford Model T Car

more air, but these are only suitable when starting or
when running slowly. The endeavor is to obtain a correct
mixture of gasoline and air as it not only bums quicker
but produces the most heat and the most effective pres-
sure in pounds per square inch of piston top area.

The amount of compression of the charge before igni-
tion also has material bearing on the force or power of the
explosion. The higher the degree of compression the great-
er the force exerted and the more rapid the combustion of
the gas. Mixtures varying from one part of gasoline vapor
to four of air to others having one part of gasoline vapor
to thirteen of air can be ignited, but the best results are
obtained when the proportions are one to five or one to
seven, as this mixture is the one that will produce the
highest temperature the quickest explosion and the most
pressure.

The Ford fuel system is clearly shown in accompany-
i!ng diagram, Fig. 14. The gasoline supply is carried
in a cylindrical galvanized iron tank under the front seat.
This is joined to the carburetor by a simple pipe line of
flexible soft copper tubing. The construction of one type
of carburetor is shown in this illustration. Before the
gasoline can flow to the vaporizer it must pass through the
sediment bulb and filtering device on the bottom of the
tank.

Utility of Gasoline Strainer. — Some carburetors include
a filtering screen at the point where the liquid enters the
float chamber in order to keep dirt or any other matter
which may be present in the fuel from entering the float
chamber. This is not general practice, however, and the
majority of vaporizers do not include a filter in their con-
struction. It is very desirable that the dirt should be kept
out of the carburetor because it may get under the float

What a Carburetor Should Do 67

controlled fuel inlet valve and cause flooding by keeping
it raised from its seat. If dirt finds its way into the spray-
ing orifice it may block the opening so that no gasoline will
issue or may so constrict the passage that only very small
quantities of fuel will be supplied the mixture. Where the
carburetor itself is not provided with a filtering screen a
simple filter is usually installed in the pipe line betweeli
the gasoline tank and the float chamber.

The simple form of filter and separator shown at
Fig. 14 is used in the Ford fuel system. That illustrated
consists of a simple hollow brass casting having a readily
detachable gauze screen facing the outlet and a settling
chamber of suflScient capacity to allow the foreign matter
to settle to the bottom from which it may be drained out
by a pet cock. Any water or dirt in the gasoline will settle
to the bottom of the chamber, and as all fuel delivered to
the carburetor must pass through the wire gauze screen
it is not likely to contain impurities when it reaches the
carburetor. The heavier particles, such as scale from the
tank or dirt and even water, all of which have greater
weight than the gasoline, will sink to the bottom of the
chamber whereas light particles, such as lint, will be pre-
vented from flowing into the carburetor by the filtering
screen.

What a Carburetor Should Do. — ^While it is apparent that
the chief function of a carbureting device is to mix hydro-
carbon vapors with air to secure mixtures that will burn,
there are a number of factors which must be considered
before describing the principles of vaporizing devices. Al-
most any device which permits a current of air to pass over
or through a volatile liquid will produce a gas which
will explode when compressed and ignited in the motor
cylinder. Modern carburetors are not only called upon to

68 The Ford Model T Car

supply certain quantities of gas, but these miist deliver a
mixture to the cylinders that is accurately proportioned
and which will be of proper composition at all engine
speeds.

Flexible control of the engine is sought by altering the
engine si)eed through regulation of the supply of gas to
the cylinders. The ])Ower plant should run from its low-
est to its highest speed without any irregularity in torque,
i.e., the acceleration should be gradual rather than spas-
modic. As the degree of compression will vary in value
with the amount of throttle opening the conditions neces-
sary to obtain maximum power differ with varying
engine speeds. When the throttle is barely opened the
engine speed is low and the gas must be richer in fuel
than when the throttle is wide open and the engine speed
high. When an engine is turning over slowly on low
throttle the compression has low value and the conditions
are not so favorable to rapid combustion as when the
compression is high. At high-engine speeds the gas veloc-
ity through the intake piping is higher than at low speeds,
and regular engine action is not so apt to be disturbed by
condensation of liquid fuel in the manifold due to exces-
sively rich mixture or a superabundance of liquid in the
stream of carbureted air.

The Ford Float Feed Carburetor. — The modern form of
spraying carburetor is provided with two chambers, one a
mixing chamber through which the air stream passes and
mixes with a gasoline spray, the other a float chamber in
which a constant level of fuel is maintained by a simple
mechanism. A nozzle or its equivalent is used in the mix-
ing chamber to spray the fuel through and the object of
the float is to maintain the fuel level to such a point that
it will not overflow when the motor is not drawing in a

Word Carburetor Construction 69

charge of gas. Two different forms of carburetor have
been used on Ford cars as regular equipment. One of
these is shown in connection with the Fuel system at Fig.
14, the other is outlined at Fig. 15. The principle of

HCEOLE VALVE

CONNECTION
OVERFLOW TUBE-

action is the same for both types, except that one has an
ansiliary air attachment consisting of a series of bronze
balls which open progressively as the engine suction in-
creases to admit more air into the mixture. This form
is shown at Fig, 15. The Ford carburetor has but one
adjustment and that by the gasoline needle valve. The

70 The Ford Model T Car

fuel enters the float bowl through a connection at its side,
its level in that member being regulated by the height
of a cork float. The float raises as the supply increases
to a point where the gasoline supply regulating valve is
seated, this cutting off the flow of gasoline. As the gaso-
line is used up and the amount in the bowl becomes less
the float lowers and through the medium of a bell crank
or simple lever lifts the needle from its seat and permits
more gasoline to flow into the float bowl from the gaso-
line tank. It is evident that a constant level of gasoline
in the float bowl is maintained by the automatic action of
the float controlled needle. The amount of gasoline enter-
ing into the mixture is governed by the needle valve con-
trolling the orifice through which the fuel flows from the
float bowl to the interior of the mixing chamber. The
volume of gaseous mixture entering the intake pipe, which
in turn deteimines ])ower and speed of the motor, is con-
trolled by opening or closing a simple gate or shutter
valve, similar to the damper used in a stove pipe, accord-
ing to the engine speed desired by the driver.

A mixture that contains too much air and not enough
gasoline is known as ^^lean" mixture. If there is too
much liquid fuel and not enough air the gas is called a
'^rich'^ mixture. Neither one of these conditions is de-
sirable as the engine will be hard to start and lack power
on a lean mixture and it will tend to overheat and be
wasteful of fuel as well as promoting carbon deposits if
the mixture is too rich. A rich mixture is indicated by a
heavy black exhaust smoke having a disagreeable smell.
When this condition is manifested the needle valve regu-
lator on the dash should be screwed down or to the right
until the engine begins to misfire, then the gasoline feed
is gradually increased by opening the needle valve in the

Action of Ford Carburetor 71

. r

other direction slowly to that point where the motftr runs
steadily and at a high rate of speed with a full throttle
opening, at the same time, there being no evidence of
smoke in the exhaust. The reader should be cautioned that
a white smoke coming out of the exhaust indicates too
much lubricating oil and not too much gasoline. If pop-
ping sounds are heard in the carburetor when the engine
is running it is because the mixture is too lean and the
gasoline needle valve should be opened just enough to
permit the eiigine to run well and yet not back fire.

As will be evident by studying the sectional views of
Figs. 14 and 15 the gasoline level in the carburetor is at
just such a height that a small pool of gasoline will collect
at the bottom of the mixing chamber. The entering air
current passing the air intake shutter is deflected toward
the bottom of the float chamber by a suitable baffle plate or
other obstruction and must sweep across the surface of the
gasoline and become thoroughly impregnated with parti-
cles of liquid fuel before it can pass into the intake mani-
fold. The action at high speed is different from that
present at low speed because the greater engine suction
and more rapidly moving air column does not give the
gasoline a chance to accumulate in a pool at the bottom of
the mixing chamber, but draws it from the orifice regu-
lated by the needle valve in the form of a spray. The
construction of a Ford carburetor is such that a correct
gas is provided for easy starting while a leaner mixture
is obtained as the engine speed increases and conditions
become such that it can be utilized to advantage.

The Ford Ignition System. — The essential elements of
any electrical ignition system, either high or low tension
are : First, a simple and practical method of current pro-
duction; second, suitable timing apparatus to cause the

The Ford Model T Car

spark to occur at the right point in the cycle of engine
action; third, suitable wiring and other apparatus to
convey the current produced by the generator to the spark-
ing member in the cylinder. The ignition system used on

r Bo s

Mnensln Tarminml.---J''^ JlfflrdPf / V~~\~'°*

__apj^kPl=,Wi«

1 fl^^^*^^^^^

the Ford is a very simple and practical one. A four con-
tact primary timer is mounted at the front end of the cam
shaft, one contact being provided for each cylinder. Wires
run from this device to the coil units on the dash as shown
in diagrams, Figs. 16 and 18. Other wires run from the
induction coil units to the spark plugs, these are called

Induction Coil System Explained 73

secondary wires, while those going to the timer are called
primary wires. When the car is shipped from the factory,
no batteries are furnished, so only the magneto terminal
is joined to the coil. This leaves one terminal free to be
connected to a battery of dry cells when that is furnished
by the owner. The magneto furnishes all the current that
is needed to run the car and the engine may be easily
started on the magneto when the coil vibrators are proper-
ly adjusted as this device supplies a strong current at
ordinary cranking speeds.

Induction Coil System Explained. — ^In order to enable the
reader to understand the basic principles of ignition ap-
paratus the important parts of a simple battery igni-
tion system for a one-cylinder engine are shown at Fig.
17. The current is supplied from two sources. One of
these is a storage battery, the other a dry cell battery.
A mechanical generator could be substituted for one of
the batteries, if desired. The induction coil or trans-
former coil is utilized to intensify the low tension cur-
rent produced by the battery to one of greater value
having sufficient voltage to jump the air gap between
the points of the spark plug. The induction coil unit con-
sists of a double wound coil surrounding a soft iron core
piece. The primary coil or the one through which the
battery current flows consists of two or three layers of
comparatively coarse wire wound around the central core.
The secondary coil is composed of a large number of turns
of fine threadlike wire. Every time a current of elec-
tricity is permitted to flow through the primary coil it
energizes the soft iron core, turns it into a magnet and
the result is the production of a current in a secondary
coil by magnetic induction, which has many times the
voltage or pressure of the primary battery current pro-

The Ford Model T Car

Fig. 17. — Diagram of Simple Higli Tensiou IgnlUon SyBtem for Ono
Cylinder Motor to show Arrangenieiit and Wiring of the T ' '~ "

Facts.

ducing it, though its amperage is greatly reduced. The
average secondary coil used for ignition purposes will
deliver a current of eight to ten thousand volts pressure.
The amperage or quantity flowing is so slight that this
voltage may pass through the human body without pro-
ducing any injury.

Ignition System Action 75

Each time that a spark is desired between the points
of the spark plug which projects into the interior of the
combustion chamber, a contact is established between the
revolving brush and the stationary contact of the timer.
This permits the current to flow from either the dry or
storage battery depending upon the position of the con-
trolling switch lever, this current passing through the
primary winding of the transformer coil. There is no
electrical connection between the primary and secondary
windings. The secondary winding is grounded at one end
and is joined to the spark plug by a high tension cable at
the other. In a simple one-cylinder engine of the four-
cycle type but one explosion is possible in every two
revolutions of the flywheel or in each four strokes of the
piston. If the cam shaft which carries the revolving brush
of the timer rotates' at half the engine speed it will be
apparent that but one electrical contact will be established
for two revolutions of the crank shaft. This contact can
be timed to take place only when the piston reaches the
end of its compression stroke, at which time it is neces-
sary to explode the gas to produce power.

A vibrator menlber, which is a simple automatic make-
and-break arrangement operated by the magnetism of the
induction coil core piece insures that the current will be
sent through the primary winding in a series of waves
during the main contact intervals. With a vibrator coil a
stream of small sparks jump the air gap of the spark
plug all the time that the revolving brush roller is in
contact with the stationary contact segment of the timer.
With a four cylinder engine it will be apparent that four
contacts must be established for each two revolutions
of the crank shaft and that the timer should have four
stationary contact members which can be served by a com-

The Ford Model T Car

mon revolving brush. In the Ford ignition system fonr
independent vibrator coils are provided, one for each
cylinder. The method of wiring is clearly shown in Fig.
16, which gives the actual appearance of the parts of the
ignition system while the course of the current may be
readily followed by studying the diagram, Fig. 18, In
this diagram the coil units are shown removed from the

coil box in order to depict clearly the way the various
connections are made. It will be evident that as soon as
the revolving •bmsh of the timer leaves the metal seg-
ment and all the time that it is in contact with the fibre
ring in which the contact segments are imbedded that no
current can flow through any of the induction coil units.
As soon as the brush establishes contact with one of the
segments the current is delivered to the unit that serves
the cylinder that is about to fire, the wires being con-

Action of Ford Timer 77

nected in such a way that coil unit supplying spark plug
No. 1 works first, then No. 2, followed by No. 4 and lastly
No. 3. This sequence of explosions is followed all the time
the engine is in operation.

The Ford Timer. — ^Anyone familiar with the basic prin-
ciples of internal combustion engine action will recognize
the need of incorporating some device in the ignition sys-
tem, which will insure that the igniting spark will occur
only in the cylinder that is ready to be fired and at the
right time in the cycle of operations. There is a certain
definite point at which the spark must take place, this
having been determined to be at the end of the compres-
sion stroke, at which time the gas has been properly com-
pacted and the piston is about to start returning to the
bottom of the cylinder again. Timers or distributors are
a form of mechanically operated switch designed so that
hundreds of positive contacts which are necessary to close
and open the circuit may be made per minute without
failure. When a timer is to be used in connection with
a four-cylinder engine the compact form shown at Fig. 19
is usually adopted. This has many desirable features
and permits of timing the spark with great accuracy.
The contact segments are spaced on quarters and are im-
bedded in a ring of fibre which is retained in a casing
of aluminum. The central revolving element carries a
lever which has a roll at one end and a tension spring de-
signed to keep the roller in contact with the inner pe-
riphery of the fibre ring at the other. The segments are
of steel and are accurately machined and hardened, and as
the surface of the roller is also hardened, this form of
timer is widely used because it provides a positive con-
tact and works smoothly at all engine speeds, as well as
having great endurance. Every time the roller makes con-

The Ford Model T Car

tact with one of the segments, if the coil switch is on either
battery or magneto, a current will 0ow from the generator
through the timer and to the coil units to which the seg-
ment is wired. This produces a flow of current through
the secondary wire to the spark plug where a spark jumps

Fig. 19. — Parts of tba Ford Ignition Timer.

the air gap between tlie electrodes and explodes the com-
pressed gas surrounding the plug points.

Why a Magneto is Used On The Ford. — The fact that
any chemical battery cannot maintain a constant supply
of electricity has militated against their use to a certain
extent and the modern motorist demands some appliance
that will deliver an unfailing supply of electricity. The
strength of batteries is reduced according to the amount
of service they give. The more they are used the weaker

Ignition >

item Action

they become. The modem midtiple cylinder engines are
especially severe in their demands upon the current pro-
ducer and the rapid sequence of explosions in the Ford
high speed four cylinder motor produces practically a

Ttaiismli

"\ i

flywh

-~<;^s

^te

steady drain upon the battery. When dry cells are used
their discharge rate is very low and as they are designed
only for intermittent work, when the conditions are such
that a constant flow of current is required they are un-
suitable and will soon deteriorate.

The Ford Model T Car

A very ingenious and practical application of the
dynamo is shown at Fig. 20, this being used on the Ford
car only. The electric generator is built in such a manner
that it forms an integral part of the power plant. The
magneto field is produced by a series of revolving perma-
nent magnets which are joined to and turn with the fly-
wheel of the motor. The sixteen current producing coils

Fig. 21. — Views Showing Construction of Statlonaiy Magneto Ccril Cany-
ing iHtaahei at Left and Rotary Magnet Carrier that Also Acts m
the Motor Flywheel at Bight.

are carried by a fixed plate which is attached to the
engine base. (See Fig. 21.) This apparatus is really a
magneto having a revolving field and a fixed armature,
and as the magnets are driven from the flywheel there is
no driving connection to get out of order and cause trouble.
The coils in which the current is generated are stationary,
no rotating commutators or fixed contact brushes are
needed to collect the current because the electricity may
be easily taken from the fixed coils by a simple direct
connection. It has been advanced that this form of mag-
neto is not as efficient as the conventional patterns be-
cause more metal and wire is needed to produce the cur-
rent required. As the magnets which form the heaviest

Wiring Dry Cells 81

portion of the apparatus are joined to the flywheel, which
can be correspondingly lighter, this disadvantage is not
one that can be considered seriously because the magnet
weight is added to that of the motor flywheel, the com-
bined mass of the two being equal to that of an ordinary
balance member used on any other engine of equal power.
The current supply will continue as long as the engine runs
and a practically unfailing source of electricity js assured
all Ford owners.

Many owners provide a set of dry cells as an auxiliary;
source of current, as these are of value in starting the
motor sometimes under conditions where the engine can-
not be cranked briskly enough to get a strong magneto
spark. Dry cells are useful as a check upon the magneto
and are also of value when adjusting the coil vibrators.
The engine will also start on the spark sometimes without
cranking when dry cells are used. The writer operated
his car for two seasons with the magneto alone and without
a battery and never felt the need of one. It was only
when a storage battery was added to the equipment to
operate electric side and tail lamps that the battery ter-
minal of the coil was put into circuit, though it was seldom
used.

Wiring Dry Cells. — One of the disadvantages of pri-
mary cells, as those types, which utilize zinc as a negative
element are called, is that the chemical action produces
deterioration and waste of material by oxidization. Dry
cells are usually proportioned so the electrolyte and de-
polarizing materials become weaker as the zinc is used
and when a dry cell is exhausted it is not profitable to
attempt to recharge it because new ohes can be obtained
at a lower cost than the expense of renewing the worn ele-
ments would be. On four-cylinder cars dry cells should

The Ford Model T Car

Qmers chafed- Zinc ahella In contact ^Looae Terminals

Terminals in contact

Frayed wire

Fig. 22. — ^Illustrating Method of Connecting Dry Cells in Series at A
and in Series Multiple at B. The Lower Illustration Shows Some
of the Points to be Watched For When Dry Cells Are Installed in
Meta}. Battery Boxes.

be joined in multiple series, which is more enduring than
if the same number were used independently in single-
series connection. A disadvantage of a dry cell battery

Wiring Dry Cells 83

is that it is suited only for intermittent service and it
will soon become exhausted if used where the current
demands are severe. For this reason, most automobiles
in which batteries only are used for ignition, employ stor-
age or secondary batteries to furnish the current regularly
used and set of dry cells is provided for use only in cases
of emergency when the storage battery becomes exhausted.
To join dry cells in series, the zinc of one cell should be
joined with the carbon of the adjacent member by a flexible
conductor. This will leave the carbon of one end cell and
the zinc of other end cell free so they can be joined to
the apparatus in the outer circuit (see Fig. 22, A).

When it is desired to obtain more amperage or cur-
rent quantity than could be obtained from a single cell
they are joined in series-multiple connection, as at Fig.
22, B. With this method of wiring two or more sets of
four cells which have been joined in series are used. The
zinc of one set is joined with the zinc element of the others
and the carbon terminals are similarly connected. Any
number of sets of cells may be connected in series-multi-
ple, and the amperage of the combination is increased
proportionately to the number of sets joined together in
this manner. When dry cells are connected in series the
voltage of one cell is multiplied by the number of cells
and the amperage obtained from the set is equal to that
of one cell. When connected in series-multiple, as shown
at Fig. 22, B, the amperage is equal to three cells, and
the voltage produced is equivalent to that obtained from
four cells. When twelve cells are joined in series-mul-
tiple the amperage is equal to that of one cell multiplied
by three, while the voltage or current pressure is equal
to that produced by one cell multiplied by the number
of cells which are in series in any one set. By properly

84 The Ford Model T Car

combining dry cells in this manner, batteries of any de-
sired current strength may be obtained.

The terms **volt'' and '^ ampere'' are merely units
by which current strength is gauged. The volt is the
unit of pressure or potential which exists between the
terminals of a circuit. The ampere is a measure of cur-
rent quantity or flow and is independent of the pressure.
One may have a current of high amperage at low poten-
tial or one having great pressure and but little amperage
or current strength. Voltage is necessary to overcome
resistance while the amperage available determines the
heating value of the current. As the resistance to cur-
rent flow increases the voltage must be augmented pro-
portionally to overcome it. A current having strength of
one ampere with a pressure of one volt is said to have
a value of one watt, which is the unit by which the capac-
ity of generators and the amount of current consumption
of electrical apparatus is gauged.

The Master Vibrator System. — One of the most widely
advertised accessories intended for the use of Ford car
owners is called a '^ master vibrator''; this consists of
a simple primary coil carrying a vibrator intended to
serve all of the coil units, the regular vibrators with
which these are provided being short circuited so that
they do not operate. Opinions regarding the practical
utility of a master vibrator differ greatly, some contend-
ing that it materially improves the steady operation of
the engine while others do not believe that it is of any
material benefit. The contention made by those favoring
this device is that the use of one vibrator, for all coil units
provides a spark that will occur in each cylinder at ex-
actly the same time in the cycle of operations, because
it reduces the lag that might result from tardy action of

The Master Vibrator System

one or more of the individual unit coil vibrators. The
argument of greater simplicity of having but one vibrator
to adjust at any time is the more reasonable one. The
writer did not find it necessary to use a master vibrator
or any other of the legion of devices advertised to in-
crease the efficiency of the Ford car. The vibrators of

Looking at Front of Dash Under Hood

Ooil

K.W. Master Vibrator

Leave this Blank, ] o ,<5;:^o. o ,
Front of Dash

Ford Magneto

Wire Shunt
to Ooi l Vibrator

rxiBio

To Battery, if used [

^^
^^

-r-t-

AdJDsting BBBW

niD

Edge View. Showing
Wire Shunt to
Ooil Vibrator

Top View
Showing, how to Short Circuit Spark Ooil Vibrators

Bottom Platinum
^-^ Point

Top Platinum
Point

Fig. 23. — Showing Application of Master Vibrator in Ford Ignition

Ssrstem.

the four unit coil regularly provided gave very little trou-
ble, as it was only the work of a few minutes to get all
of these adjusted to the point where satisfactory engine
action was obtained. The theory of irregular engine
action due to lag of a poorly adjusted vibrator on any
one of the coil units is only true in cases where the
vibrator adjustment has been carried to a point where

86 The Ford Model T Car

it is practically inoi^erative. The non-mechanical owner
who cannot adjust the vibrators furnished on the regular
Ford coil properly is not apt to have much success in
adjusting that of a master vibrator, inasmuch as faulty
adjustment of the one vibrator serving all coil units will
throw the entire ignition system out of order, whereas
if only one of the four coil units is not properly adjusted
the engine will be able to run with some degree of power
on the other three units.

As many Ford cars have been fitted with a master
vibrator by their owners, these afterward passing into
other hands, it may be well for the reader to familiarize
himself with the method of installation of this component.
The diagram shown in the upper left corner of Fig. 23
shows the way the master vibrator is placed in circuit.
The plan and side views below the wiring diagram show
the simple method of short circuiting the regular spark
coil vibrator by joining the vibrating and fixed portions
with a short length of wire. At the right of the illus-*
tration are views showing the construction of the master
vibrator, depicting the large platinum points necessary
when one member serves four coil units, also the means
provided for adjustment.

Why Cooling Systems Are Necessary. — The reader should
now understand that the power of any internal combus-
tion motor is obtained by the rapid combustion and conse-
quent expansion of some inflammable gas. The opera-
tion in brief is that when air or any other gas or vapor
is heated, it will expand, and that if this gas is confined
in a space which will not pennit expansion, pressure will
be exerted against all sides of the containing chamber.
The more a gas is heated the more pressure it will exert
upon the walls of the combustion chamber by which it is

Why Cooling System is Needed 87

confined. Pressure in a gas may be created by increasing
its temperature, and inversely heat may be created by
pressure. When a gas is compressed its total volume is
reduced and the temperature is augmented. The efficiency
of any form of heat engine is determined by the power
obtained from a certain fuel consumption. A definite
amount of energy will be liberated in the form of heat
when a given quantity of any fuel is burned. The effi-
ciency of any heat engine is proportional to the power
developed from a definite quantity of fuel with the least
loss of thermal units. If the greater proportion of the
heat units derived by burning the explosive mixture could
be utilized in doing useful work, the efficiency of the
gasoline engine would be much greater than that of any
other form of power producer.

There is a great loss of heat from various causes,
among which can be cited the reduction of pressure
through cooling the motor and the loss of the heat
through the exhaust valves when the burned gases are
expelled from cylinder. The loss through the water
jacket of the average automobile power plant is over
50% of the total fuel efficiency. This means that more
than half of the heat units that should be available for
power are absorbed and dissipated by the cooling water.
Another 16% is lost through the exhaust valve, and but
33% % of heat units do useful work. The great loss of
heat through the cooling systems cannot be avoided, as
some method must be provided to keep the temperature
of the engine within proper bounds. It is apparent that
the rapid combustion and continued series of explosions
would soon heat the metal portions of the engine to a red
heat if some means were not taken to conduct much of
this heat away. The high temperature of the parts would

88 The Ford Model T Car

burn the lubricating oil, even that of the best quality,
and the piston and rings would expand to such a degree,
especially when deprived of oil, that they would seize in
the cylinder. This would score the walls, and the friction
which ensued would tend to bind the parts so tightly that
the piston would stick, bearings would be burned out,
valves would warp, and the engine would soon become
inoperative.

The best temperature to secure efficient operation is
one on which considerable difference of opinion exists
among engineers. The fact that the efficiency of an en-
gine is dependent upon the ratio of heat converted into
work compared to that generated by the explosion of the
gas is accepted fact. It is very important that the engine
should not get too hot, and at the other hand it is equally
vital that the cylinder be not robbed of too much heat.
The object of cylinder cooling is to keep the temperature
of the cylinder below the danger point, but at the same
time to have it as high as possible to secure maximum
power from the gas burned.

Cooling Systems Generally Applied. — There are two
general systems of engine cooling in common use: that
in which water is heated by the absorption of heat from
the engine and then cooled by air, and the other method
in which the air is directed onto flanged cylinders and
absorbs the heat directly instead of through the medium
of water. When the liquid is employed in cooling it is
circulated through jackets which surround the cylinder
casting, and the water may be kept in motion by two
methods. The one sometimes favored is to use a positive
circulating pump of some form which is driven by the
engine to keep the water in motion. The other system
is to utilize a natural principle that heated water is lighter

Water Cooling System 89

than cold liquid, and that it will tend to rise to the top
of the cylinder when it becomes heated to the ^oper
temperature and cooler water takes its place at the hottom
of the water jacket.

Ford Water Circulation by Natural System. — Some en-
gineers contend that the rapid water circulation obtained

Fig. 24. — ^Tlie Ford Thermo-STplion Wstei OoOUng System.

by using a pump may cool the cylinders too much, and
that the temperature of the engine may be reduced so
much that the eflSciency will be lessened. For this reason
there is a growing tendency to use the natural method of
water circulation as the cooling liquid is supplied to the
cylinder jackets just below the boiling point, and the
water issues from the jacket at the top of the cylinder
after it has absorbed sufficient heat to raise it just about
to the boiling point.

90 The Ford Model T Car

The Ford cooling system, depicted at Fig. 24, is very-
successful in practice, and is somewhat simpler than the
forms in which a pump is used to maintain circulation.
With this method, the fact that water becomes lighter as
its temperature becomes higher is taken advantage of
in securing circulation around the cylinders. The top of
the water jacket of the block cast cylinder head is at-
tached to the top center of the radiator, while the pipe
leading from the bottom of that member is connected
to a manifold which supplies cool water to the bottom
of the cylinder jacket.

With a thermo-siphon system it is imperative that
the radiator be carried at such a height that the cool
water will flow to the water spaces around the cylinder
by gravity. As the water becomes heated by contact with
the hot cylinder and combustion chamber walls it rises
to the top of the cylinders, flows to the cooler, where
enough of the heat is absorbed to cause it to become sen-
sibly greater in weight. As the water becomes cooler it
falls to the bottom of the radiator, and it is again sup-
plied to the water jacket. The circulation is entirely
automatic and continues as long as there is a difference
in temperature between the liquid in the cooler and that
in the jacket. The circulation becomes brisker as the
engine becomes hotter, and thus the temperature of the
cylinders is kept more nearly to a fixed point. With the
thermo-siphon system the cooling liquid is nearly always
at its boiling point, whereas if the circulation is main-
tained by a pump the engine will become cooler at high
speed and will heat up more at low speed. So long as the
proper quantities of clean water are used in the radiator
there is nothing that can interfere with proper engine
cooling. There is no pump drive to complicate the con-

Theory of Lubrication 91

struction and demand attention. It is an ideal cooling
system for a car designed for use by the masses.

The radiator cools the water by dividing it into a num-
ber of fine streams as the liquid passes from the upper
portion to the lower tank through a large number of fine
copper pipes which are cooled by air currents passing
over flanges soldered to them. A belt-driven fan is placed
back of the radiator to insure a constant passage of air
through the passages between the radiator tubes at all
times that the engine is running. When the car is in
operation^ the air currents are increased in value by added
air movement due to natural draft.

Theory of Lubrication. — The reason a lubricant is sup-
plied to bearing points will be easily understood if one
considers that these elastic substances flow between the
close-fitting bearing surfaces, and by filling up the minute
depressions in the surfaces and covering the high spots,
act as a cushion which absorbs the heat generated, and
takes the wear instead of the metallic surfaces. The
closer the parts fit together the more fluid the lubricant
must be to pass between their surfaces and at the same
time it must possess sufficient body so that it will not be
entirely forced out by the pressure existing between the
parts. Oils should have good adhesive, as well as cohe-
sive, qualities. The former are necessary so that the oil
film will cling well to the surfaces of the bearings; the
latter, so the oil particles will cling together and resist
the tendency to separation which exists all the time the
bearings are in operation.

When used 'for gas engine lubrication, the oil should
be capable of withstanding considerable heat in order
that it will not be vaporized by the hot portions of the
cylinder. It should have sufficient cold test so that it will

92 The Ford Model T Car

remain fluid and flow readily at low temperature. Lubri-
cant should be free from acid or alkalies, which tend to
produce a chemical action with metals and result in corro-
sion of the parts to which they are applied.

It is imperative that the oil be exactly the proper
quality and nature for the purpose intended, and that it
be applied in a positive manner. The requirements may
be briefly summarized as follows: First — ^It must have
sufficient body to prevent seizing of the parts to which
it is applied and between which it is depended upon to
maintain an elastic film, and yet it must not have too
much viscosity in order to minimize the internal or fluid
friction which exists between the particles of the lubri-
cant itself. Second — The lubricant must not coagulate or
gum, must not injure the parts to which it is applied,
either by chemical action or by producing injurious de-
posits, and it should not evaporate readily. Third — The
character of the work will demand that the oil should not
vaporize when heated moderately, or thicken to such a
point that it will not flow readily when cold. Fourth —
The oil must be free from acid, alkalies, animal or vegeta-
ble fillers or other injurious agencies. Fifth — ^It must be
carefully selected for the work required and should be
a good conductor of heat.

Derivation of Lubricants. — The first oils which were
used for lubricating machinery were obtained from ani-
mal and vegetable sources, though at the present time
most of them are of mineral derivation. Lubricants may
exist as fluids, semi-fluids, or solids. The viscosity will
vary from spindle or dynamo oils, which have but little
more body than kerosene, to the heaviest greases and
tallows. The most common solid employed as a lubricant
is graphite, sometimes termed '* plumbago'* or ** black

Mediums for Lubrication 93

lead.'' This substance is of mineral derivation. Soap-
stone is also a lubricant, and is used in tires. The dis-
advantage of oil of organic origin, such as those obtained
from animal fats or vegetable substances, is that they
will absorb oxygen from the atmosphere which causes
them to thicken or become rancid. Such oils have a very
poor cold test, as they solidify at comparatively high
temperatures and their flashing points are so low that they
cannot be used at points where much heat exists. In most
animal oils various acids are present in greater or less
quantities, and for this reason they are not well adapted
for lubricating metallic surfaces which may be raised high
enough in temperature to cause decomposition of the oils.

Lubricants derived from the crude petroleum are called
* * Oleonaphthas, " and they are a product of the process
of refining petroleum through which gasoline and kerosene
are obtained. They are of lower cost than vegetable
or animal oils, and as they are of non-organic origin they
do not become rancid or gummy by constant exposure to
the air, and they will have no corrosive effect on metals
because they contain no deleterious substances in their
chemical composition. By the process of fractional dis-
tillation mineral oils of all grades can be obtained. They
have a lower cold and higher flash test, and there is not
the liability of spontaneous combustion that exists with
animal oils.

The importance of minimizing friction at the various
bearing surfaces of machines to secure mechanical effi-
ciency is fully recognized by all mechanics, and proper
lubricity of all parts of the mechanism is a very essential
factor upon which the durability and successful operation
of the motor car power plant depends. All of the moving
members of the engine which are in contact with other

94 The Ford Model T Car

portions, whether the motion is continuous or intermit-
tent, of high or low velocity or of rectilinear or continued
rotary nature, should be provided with an adequate supply
of oil. No other assemblage of mechanism is operated
under conditions which are so much to its disadvantage
as the motor car, and the tendency is toward a simpli-
fication of oiling methods so that the supply will be
ample and automatically applied to the points needing it.

In all machinery in motion the members which are in
contact have a tendency to stick to each other, and the
very minute projections which exist on even the smooth-
est of surfaces would adhere to each other if the surfaces
were not kept apart by some elastic and unctuous sub-
stance. This will flow or spread out over the surfaces and
smooth out the inequalities existing which tend to pro-
duce heat and retard motion of the pieces relative to
each other.

How Ford Power Plant Is Lubricated. — The system of
lubrication employed in the Ford power plant is an ex-
ceptionally simple one, requiring no apparatus other than
that regularly forming a part of the engine. The con-
struction of the magneto has been previously described,
and mention made of the way the magnets are attached
to the flywheel rim. These magnets also serve as a por-
tion of the lubrication system being employed to circu-
late the oil. If one will refer to the part sectional view
at Fig. 11, it will be apparent that a series of troughs
are placed on the center line of each cylinder in the bot-
tom plate, these being so arranged that as the connecting
rods rotate the big ends dip into the troughs and scoop out
some of the oil present in these members, throwing *it
about the engine interior and lubricating all parts ex-
posed to the spray. It will be evident that all internal

How Ford Engine is Oiled 95

parts of the engine will be oiled continuously if some
means is provided for keeping these troughs or channels
full of lubricant.

This object is attained in a very simple manner by
filling the flywheel compartment of the engine crank case
to a definite height which is indicated by small drain
cocks placed on the back side of the lower crank case
compartment. This level is sulBSciently high so the mag-
nets are partially submerged in the oil as the flywheel
revolves. It will be apparent that considerable oil will
be scooped up by the projecting magnets, and these are
utilized to lift oil into a small funnel attached to the side
of the crank case and in the path of the oil stream. This
funnel communicates with a brass tube that conveys the
stream of lubricating oil to the front crank case compart-
ment housing the timing gears. From this point the oil
drains back, filling the troughs until they overflow, the
surplus then flowing back into the flywheel compartment
of the crank case. This system of lubrication also pro-
vides for thorough lubricity of the exposed planetary
transmission gears carried in the gear case, which really
forms the rear part of the engine crank case.

The oil is introduced into the engine through an open-
ing obtained by removing the brass cover of the breather
pipe. When the Ford engine is new and all crank case
joints are tight so there is no leakage, the oil consumption
will be equivalent to about one quart per hundred miles
of car operation. The makers advise keeping the oil
level at a point about midway between the two petcocks,
but how this can be determined without the use of the
X-ray can only be conjectured. They advise that carrj^-
ing the oil level above the top petcock will result in ex-
cessive use of lubricant, whereas having the level below

96 The Ford Model T Car

the lower peteock will be apt to result injuriously, owing
to lack of lubrication. However, it is better to use too
much oil than not enough, so most Ford owners fill the
flywheel compartment to the height indicated by the top
drain cock. Simple glass gauge fittings may be procured
from accessory dealers by which the height of oil may
be accurately gauged. These replace the lower peteock,
and many Ford owners find it desirable to purchase this
inexpensive fitting, as the level of the oil may be deter-
mined at a glance. During practically all the time that
the writer had his car in operation, it was his rule to
supply one quart of oil through the breather pipe for
every five gallons of gasoline that was placed into the
fuel tank. Then, the top peteock was opened until the
surplus lubricant had drained out. With the Ford sys-
tem of lubrication it is necessary to remove the crank
case oil plug at the bottom of the flywheel compartment
and drain out the old oil at least every five hundred miles,
flushing out the interior of the crank case thoroughly with
gasoline or kerosene and introducing enough lubricant
after the oil plug had been replaced to bring the level
to the proper height.

The Ford Muffler. — ^When the exhaust gas of a gasoline
engine is discharged into the open air directly from the
valve ports, each discharge is accompanied by a sound
resembling a gunshot. Evidently this would be very an-
noying to the public, so means are taken to silence the
exhaust gases before they are discharged to the outer
air. The Ford muflHer, which is illustrated at Fig. 25,
is a very simple assembly that silences the gas by per-
mitting it to expand to a point where it is practically
at atmospheric pressure before it is discharged to the air.
The muffler is attached to one of the chassis side members,

How Exhaust Gas Is Silenced

and is connected to the exhaust manifold attached to the
cylinder casting hy a piece of steel tubing. The muffler
consists of two end castings having cylindrical ledges cast
integrally which are nsed as supports for the concentric
tubular members which divide the muffler into three dis-
tinct compartments. The gas from the exhaust pipe passes
first into the central compartment, which is but slightly
larger than the exhaust pipe. A number of passages or

Outer Muffler She!!

Rear Muffler Head-

Aabeatoa Covering^

/ Middle Muffler Shell
/ / Anner Muffler

Shell
Muffler Head
Front

Intake

Qaaea Circulate around/
Expansion Chamber

'Expansion Chamber

Fig. 25. — Sectional View Defining Construction and Method of Operation

of the Ford Exhaust Gas Silencer.

slots are pierced through the rear end of this chamber.
The gas is discharged through the slots into the inter-
mediate chamber, passing from this to the outer chamber
through a series of openings at the front end of the middle
muffler shell. The outer muffler shell serves as a casing
for the assembly, and is covered with a sheet of asbestos
which not only serves to muffle the sound made when the
gas is discharged into the muffler, but which also serves
to keep the heat of the muffler properly confined. The
gas from the outer expansion chamber, which is formed
by the space between the middle and outer muffler shells,
issues to the air through a discharge pipe carried by

98 The Ford Model T Car

the rear muffler head. The path of the gases is clearly
shown by following the arrows through the various com-
partments. The Ford muffler is a very efficient one, re-
ducing the sound of the exhaust to a point where it is
not objectionable, yet at the same time not offering much
back pressure to retard the free outflow of the gases.
The silencing effect is obtained by breaking up the solid
gas stream from the exhaust pipe into a number of smaller
streams, and permitting these to expand in the concentric
muffler chambers before they reach the air.

CHAPTER III

DETAILS OF THE FORD CHASSIS PARTS

Why Clutch is Necessary — How Friction Clutches Transmit Power — ^Why
Change Speed Gearing Is Needed — How Ford Planetary Gearing
Operates — Method of Power Transmission — Rear Axle Construction —
The Ford Axle Bearings — Purpose of Differential Gear — ^Utility of
Motor Oar Brakes — The Ford Steering Gear.

Next in importance to the power plant and its aux-
iliary groups are those chassis parts which have to do
with the delivery of power from the engine crank shaft
to the rear wheels. These parts are usually called the
transmission members, and while they are not apt to give
much trouble except to depreciate from natural wear as
the car is used, it is well for the reader to become familiar
with the method of operation and the relation the trans-
mission parts bear to the other chassis components. The
most important member, and one that is always in use,
is the drive shaft which takes the engine power from
the rear end of the transmission or change speed gearing
to the bevel gears mounted in the rear axle which imparts
motion to the wheels.

The parts comprising the transmission system are the
clutch, the change speed gearing, the drive shaft, bevel
driving gears, and the axle shafts which turn the wheels,
these being carried by the rear construction. In consid-
ering the various parts, it will be well to define the reason
why a clutch and change speed gearing are needed with a
gasoline engine propelled automobile before describing
the construction and operation of the Ford clutch and

100 The Ford Model T Car

planetary gearing. In cars employing a sliding gear set
the clutch is a separate member from the change speed
gear, but in the Ford it forms an integral part of the
mechanism depended on to obtain the two forward speeds
and reverse ratios. The clutch and change speed gearing
is mounted in an extension of the engine crank case, this
insuring absolute alignment with the engine crank shaft.

Why Clutch Is Necessary. — In order to secure a better
understanding of the general requirements of clutching
devices, it will be well to consider the conditions which
make their use imperative when an automobile is propelled
by a hydrocarbon motor. If either a steam engine or an
electric motor are installed as prime movers, it is not
necessary to include any clutching device or gear set be-
tween them and the driving wheels, and these members
may be driven directly from the power plant, if desired.
With either of the forms mentioned the power is obtained
from a separate source which may be disconnected from
the motor by the simple movement of a throttle valve or
switch lever. Steam or electric motors are also capable
of delivering power in excess of their rating, and are more
flexible than internal combustion power plants.

If steam is the motive agent it is generated and con-
tained in a special device, as a boiler, and the amount
of power delivered by the engine to which the boiler is
connected will vary with the amount of steam admitted
and its pressure. If the steam supply is interrupted en-
tirely, the engine and the car which it drives is brought
to a stop. When it is desired to start again, a simple
movement of the throttle-valve lever will permit the steam
to flow from the boiler to the engine cylinders again, and
the vehicle is easily set in motion. If it is desired to
reverse the car, the steam flow is reversed by a simple

Why Clutch is Needed .101

mechanical movement and the engine will run in the oppo-
site direction to that which obtains when the car is driven
in a forward direction. y

If an electric motor drives a vehicle, the electrical
energy is obtained from a group of storage batteries.
When these are fully charged varying amounts of electric
current may be drawn from them and allowed to flow
through the windings of the field or armature of the motor
and different ratios of power or speed obtained. The
vehicle is easily started by completing the circuit between
the motor and the source of current and stopped by in-
terrupting the supply of electrical energy. As the flow
of electricity can be reversed easily by a switch, the car
may be driven backward or forward at will, and as the
speed may be easily varied by changing the value of the
current strength there is no need of speed changing or
reversing gears.

When a gasoline engine is fitted, conditions are radi-
cally different than with either a steam or electric power
plant. The power developed depends upon the number
of explosions per unit time and the energy augments di-
rectly as the number of explosions and revolutions of the
crank shaft increase up to a certain point. It is not
possible to start a gasoline engine under full load be-
cause the power is obtained by the combustion of fuel
directly in the cylinder, and as there is no external source
of power to draw from, it is obvious that the energy de-
rived depends upon the rapidity with which the explosions
follow each other. It has been demonstrated that a cer-
tain cycle of operation is necessary to secure gasoline-
engine action, and it is imperative that the engine re-
volves freely until it attains sulBScient speed to supply
the torque or power needed to overcome the resistance

102 The Ford Model T Car

that tends to prevent motion of the car before it can
be employed in driving the vehicle.

Then, again, it is very desirable that the vehicle be
started or stopped independently of the engine. With a
steam or electric motor the vehicle may be started just
as soon as the driving power is admitted to the prime
mover, but with a gasoline engine it is customary to in-
terpose some device between the engine and the driving
wheels which make it possible to couple the engine to
the wheels or driving gearing and disconnect it at will.
The simplest method of doing this is by means of some
form of clutching device which will lock the rear wheel
driving shaft to the crank shaft of the engine.

Clutch Forms and Their Bequirements. — Clutch forms
that have been applied to automobile propulsion are usu-
ally of the f rictional type, though some have been devised
which depend upon hydraulic, pneumatic, or magnetic
energy. Those which utilize the driving properties of
frictional adhesion are most common, and have proven
to be the most satisfactory in practical application. The
most important requirement in a clutch is that this device
be capable of transmitting the maximum power of the
engine to which it is fitted without any power loss due
to slipping. A clutch must be easy to operate and but
minimum exertion should be required of the operator.
When the clutch takes hold, the engine power should be
transmitted to the gears and driving wheels in a gradual
and uniform manner or the resulting shock may seriously
injure the mechanism. When released it is imperative
that the two portions of the clutch disengage positively, so
that there will be no continued rotation of the parts after
the clutch is disengaged. The design should be carefully
considered with a view of providing as much friction

How Friction Clutches Drive Car 103

surface as possible to prevent excessive slipping and loss
of power. It is very desirable to have a clutch that will
be absolutely silent whether engaged or disengaged. If
the clutch parts are located in an accessible manner it may
be easily removed for inspection, cleaning, or repairs. It
is desirable that adjustment be provided, so a certain
amount of wear can be compensated for without expensive
replacement. A simple, substantial design, with but few
operating parts, is more to be desired than a more com-
plex device which may have a few minor advantages, but
which is more likely to cause trouble.

The friction clutch in its various efficient types is the
one that more nearly realizes the requirements of the ideal
clutch. As a result this form is now universally recog-
nized by automobile designers, and all standard gasoline
automobiles utilize some form of friction clutch which is
included with the planetary speed reduction gearing on
the Ford car. These devices are capable of transmitting
any amount of power if properly proportioned, and per-
mit of gradual engagement and positive disconnection.
Most friction clutches are simple in form, easily under-
stood, and may be kept in adjustment and repair without
difficulty.

How Friction Clutches Transmit Power. — ^To illustrate
the transmission of power by the frictional adhesion of
substances with each other we can assume a simple case
of two metal disks or plates in contact, the pressure ex-
isting between the surfaces being due to the weight of
one member bearing upon the other. If the disks are not
too heavy, it will be found comparatively easy to turn
one upon the other, but if weights are added to the upper
member, a more decided resistance will be felt which will
increase directly as the weight on the top disk, and con-

104

The Ford Model T Car

sequently the pressure between the disks, increases. It
may be possible to add enough weight so it will be prac-
tically impossible to move one plate without turning the
other. It is patent that if one of these plates was mounted
rigidly on the engine shaft and one applied to the trans-
mission shaft so that it had a certain amount of asial

Fig. 26. — Flan View of the Ford PIa.iietai7 Gearing Showing Uethod of
Carrying Triple Planetary Spur Finlon Assemlilles and Actuatinc
tlie Higli Speed Disc Clutch Assembly.

Why Change Speed Gearing Is Used 105

freedom and pressure of contact was maintained by a
spring instead of weights, a combination capable of trans-
mitting power would be obtained. The spring pressure
applied to one disk would force it against the other, and
one shaft could not turn without producing a correspond-
ing movement of the other. The Ford clutch, shown at
Fig. 26 is a multiple disk form.

Why Change Speed Grearing is Needed. — Those who are
familiar with steam or electricity as sources of power for
motor vehicles may not understand the necessity for the
change speed gearing which is such an essential compo-
nent of the automobile propelled by internal combustion
motors. In explaining the reason for the use of the clutch
it has been demonstrated that steam or electric motors
are very flexible, and that their speed, and consequently
the power derived from them, could be varied directly
by regulating the amount of energy supplied from the
steam boiler or the electric battery, as the case might be.
If, for example, we compare the steam engine with the
explosive type, it will be evident that the power is pro-
duced in the former by the pressure of steam admitted
to the cylinders as well as the quantity and the speed
of rotation. When the engine is running slowly and a
certain amount of power is needed, more steam can be
supplied the cylinder, and practically the same power
obtained, as though the steam pressure was reduced and
the engine speed increased. The internal combustion mo-
tor is flexible to a certain degree, providing that it is
operating under conditions which are favorable to accel-
erating the motor speed by admitting more gas to the
cylinders. There is a definite limit, however, to the power
capacity or the effective pressure of the explosion, and
beyond a certain point it is not possible to increase the

106 The Ford Model T Car

power by supplying vapor having a higher pressure as is
X)ossible with a steam engine.

In an explosive motor we can increase the power after
the maximum explosive pressure has been reached only
by augmenting the number of revolutions. Whereas it is
possible to couple a steam engine or an electric motor
directly to the shafts driving the wheels, it is not possible
to do this with gasoline engines, and some form of gear-
ing must be introduced between the motor and the driving
wheels in order that the speed of one relative to the
other may be changed, as desired, and the engine crank
shaft turned at speeds best adapted to produce the power
required, and to allow the rear wheels to turn at speeds
dictated by the condition of the roads or the gradients
on which the car is operated. It is customary in all auto-
mobiles of the gasoline-burning type, where combustion
takes place directly in the cylinders, to interpose change
speed gearing which will give two or more ratios of speed
between the engine and the road wheels. As it is not
possible to reverse the automobile engine utilized in con-
ventional cars, it is necessary to add a set of gears to the
gear set to give the wheels a reverse motion when it is
desired to back it.

How Planetary Gearing Operates. — The planetary or epi-
cycle transmission is an easily operated form of speed
gear that has been very popular on small cars. This has
many features of merit ; it provides a positive drive, and
as the gears are always in mesh these members cannot
be injured by careless shifting. Individual clutches are
used for speed selection, and as the operation of the clutch
occurs at the same time that the desired speed is selected,
any of the various speed changes desired may be easily
effected by manipulating a single hand lever or pedal.

The Ford Planetary Gearing

108 The Ford Model T Car

The planetary gearing shown at Fig. 27 is that used in
Ford automobiles, and its operation is as follows: This
contains only spur pinions. The fljnp^^^heel web, A, serves
as pinion carrier and driving member, having three lat-
eral studs secured into it which carry triple planetary
pinions. Gear B is the driven member, being keyed to the
hub clutch drum C, which in turn is secured to driven shaft
D. By applying a brake band to drum E, gear F is held
stationary, pinion 6 rolls on it, and the smaller pinion H
causes gear B to turn slowly in the same direction as
pinion carrier A. By applying a brake band to drum I,
gear J is held stationary, pinion K rolls on it, and the
larger pinion H turns gear B slowly in the reverse direc-
tion. For the high gear, or direct drive, the friction
clutch locks clutch drum C to the engine tail shaft, and
the entire gear mechanism rotates as a unit. In this
mechanism the master clutch, which provides the direct
drive, is a multiple-disk form composed of two sets of
steel disks, which are kept in contact and proper driving
relation by means of a heavy coiled spring. The low and
reverse speeds are obtained in the conventional manner
by tightening the external contracting clutch bands, which
are shown between the gearing and disk clutch in Fig. 28.
One set of the high speed clutch plates drive the drum C,
and are driven by the other set which are keyed to the
clutch disk carrier rotated by the engine crank shaft
extension.

Planetary gearing has been very successful when prop-
erly designed and installed, and its chief disadvantage
is that it is very difficult to provide more than two for-
ward speeds and one reverse. For this reason it can only
be adapted to light cars which liave a surplus of power in
the engine as the Ford. While such gearing is not very

The Ford Planetary Gearing 109

1 ^\, X'// SI"" Bp^'a Afl'u.Hni Hat

Cnrnkind __— — '^^■vA »

Fig. 28. — ^Flumtom View of the Ford FUnettUT OeuMt Sbowlng the
Control P«dftl ABflcmbly at Top. Tlev of 0«u1iik ParttaUr Diiaa-
HmUed Sbowlug Brake Bands and Other Parte at the Bottom.

110 The Ford Model T Car

eflScient on lo^ and reverse speeds as considerable power
is absorbed in friction, on the high speed or direct drive
it is superior to any other form of change-speed gearing
because the entire assembly is locked to the crank shaft,
no gears are turning idly and the weight of the gearing
serves merely as an additional flywheel member. With
light cars like the Ford practically all roads may be nego-
tiated on the direct drive and the low speed is very sel-
dom used. Considerable trouble was experienced with
the early forms because it was diflScult to keep oil in the
case, but in the Ford design special care has been taken
in housing the reduction gears so these are constantly
oiled, and both wear and noise, which were formerly detri-
mental to the adoption of this form of gearing and which
militated largely against its general use, have been elimi-
nated to a large extent.

Method of Power Transmission. — The power delivered
to the gear set from the motor crank shaft is taken by
means of the universal joint and propeller shaft to bevel
gearing forming part of the rear axle. This driving
gearing is shown at Fig. 29 while a sectional view showing
the arrangement of the rear axle parts is presented at
Fig. 30. The propeller shaft is enclosed in a drive shaft
tube which also acts as a torque member to resist the ten-
dency of the rear axle to rotate while the wheels are driv-
ing the car or when the hub brakes are applied to stop the
car. This tube terminates in a universal joint casing
made in the form of a ball with a portion cut off the top,
this fitting in a suitable carrying member or ball seat,
machined in the back end of the transmission case. The
front end of the propeller shaft revolves in a plain bear-
ing, while the rear end which carries the bevel driving
pinion is supported by a flexible roller bearing. The bevel

Rear Axle Construction

111

pinion meshes with a large bevel gear, often called the
' ' ring gear, ' ' which is attached to the differential housing
in the manner indicated at Fig. 29. A portion of the
differential housing is cut away in this illustration to
show the method of carrying the differential pinions and

Fig. 29. — Ontaway View of tlie Ford B«ar Axle Differential Hoosing
Sbowlng Arrangement of Berel Driving Qearlng and Differential

the way these are in mesh with the differential gears at-
tached to the wheel driving axle shafts. Part of the axle
housing is also cut away on each side to show the roller
bearings which may be more clearly seen in the sectional
view of entire rear construction at Fig. 30. When the
motor is operating and the low or high speed is engaged,

112 The Ford Model T Car

the universal joint and the shaft to which it is attached
turn clockwise when viewed from the front of the car. In
other words this shaft revolves in the same direction as
the crank shaft of the motor though its speed of rotation
depends on whether the low speed band or the high speed
clutch is engaged.

AVith the low speed engaged the engine shaft is turning
faster than the drive shaft, though with the high speed
clutch transmitting the power the propeller shaft and en-
gine crank shaft turn at the same speed. The power then
goes through the universal joint and the shaft to which
the bevel pinion is attached, from this to the large ring
gear attached to the differential casing and from the dif-
ferential mechanism to the axle shafts connected to the
road wheels. When the engine is turning clockwise, the
large gear turns forward, as do the axles and wheels at-
tached to them, and as a result the car will move in a for-
ward direction. When the reverse motion control pedal
is depressed and the reverse friction band is constricted
around the reverse drum of the gearing the gears pre-
viously described come into action, thus reversing the
motion of the universal joint and pinion drive shaft caus-
ing the large gear in the rear axle to turn in a direction op-
posite to that obtained when either the high or low speeds
are in action and thus producing a backward motion of
the car.

It will be apparent that there is considerable difference
in the size of the drive gears, the bevel pinion being much
smaller than the ring gear attached to the differential.
This is done because the ring gear must turn slower than
the engine crank shaft, as it would not be practical to
rotate the road wheels at a speed equal to that of the
engine crank shaft because the resistance to car move-

Rear Axle Construction

"S|« I

114 The Ford Model T Car

ment is too great to be overcome by such a direct appli-
cation of power. The bevel pinion is provided with eleven
teeth and the large gear it drives has forty teeth. Con-
sequently, the driving shaft and its pinion will make 3%i
revolutions for every one of the large gear when the
high speed clutch or direct drive is engaged. When the
low speed is brought into action the reduction is con-
siderably increased by the gears in the transmission. In
this case, the engine crank shaft will make about ten revo-
lutions to one of the rear wheels.

One of the important elements of the driving system
is the universal joint which is a flexible, though positive
driving coupling that permits rotating the driving shaft
even though that member is at an angle with the engine
crank shaft. This slope is made necessary because the
differential and drive gearing in the rear axle are carried
lower than the gear set, so it will be apparent that it is
necessary to provide some driving coupling that is capable
of compensating for this lack of alignment. The universal
joint is composed of three main parts, two knuckle joints
and a joint ring. The ring is made in two half sections
riveted together which serve as a bearing for the male and
female knuckle joint driving pins. As will be noted by
consulting Fig. 30, the male knuckle joint is so called be-
cause it has a squared end intended to slip into a square
machined in the transmission shaft. The boss of the fe-
male knuckle joint is in the form of a sleeve formed to
slip over the end of the driving shaft and secured thereto
by a pin passing through both. The square end of .the
male joint may move back and forth in the transmission
shaft to compensate for any slight end movement that may
be present as the universal joint ring member rocks on
the knuckle joint pins. The universal joint is housed in

Rear Axle Construction 115

the globular member indicated, which is filled with lubri-
cant to provide for thorough oiling of the moving parts.

The rear construction, as the entire rear axle assembly
is called, supports the rear end of the chassis and in turn
is supported by the road wheels. These are members
somewhat similar in design to certain forms of carriage
wheels, the wooden spokes being mounted between hub
flanges at the central part of the wheel and forced into
a wooden felloe band to which the tire-carrying rim is
attached at the outer ends. The rear wheel flanges are
of metal and they are securely attached to a central hub
member which is bored tapering to fit the tapered end of
the drive axle. The axle is provided with a key which
fits a keyway in the hub member and when the wheel hub
is clamped on the axle taper by the retention nut the
wheel cannot turn unless the axle turns with it. As a re-
sult when the energy of the motor is applied to the driving
axles through the medium of the differential gear the road
wheels must rotate with them. The wheel is prevented
from backing off of the taper by a suitable clamp nut
which in turn is locked in place by a split pin which passes
through the axle and which fits into slots milled across
the end of the nut. The rear wheel hubs carry a pressed
steel brake drum which is retained by the same bolts hold-
ing the wheel assembly together. This drum serves to
house the emergency brake shoes and their operating
cams. The rear construction therefore consists of three
casings or housing members, one serving to carry the
propeller shaft while the other two are bolted together
to form the housing for the axle shafts carrying the wheels
and the differential and driving gear mechanism.

The Ford Axle Bearings. — Careful study of the cutaway
view of the differential housing at Fig. 29 and of the rear

116

The Ford Model T Car

axle assembly at Fig. 30 will sho-w that the varioua driv-
ing shafts are supported by anti-friction bearings at all
points subjected to heavy loads. For example, the driving
shaft is supported at the universal joint-end by a plain
bushing which answers the purpose because it serves

-.B^i-L 7f£m"V£^

Fig. SI. — Types of Anti-Friction BeaxingB Used In the Ford Ou. A—
Cup and Oone Type Angular Contact Ball Bearings Similar to ThOM
Used in the From Wheels. B— Hyatt FleHbls Boiler Bemring. —
Special Ball BearlngB for Resisting End Thrust Only.

merely to guide the shaft and is not subject to any great
stress. At the pinion end, however, the load is greater
and a plain bearing would wear out very quickly, besides
consuming a lot of power all the time it was in use. The
pinion end of the driving shaft, therefore, is fitted with
a large flexible roller bearing and a ball thrust bearing.

Anti-friction Bearings 117

The function of this thrust bearing is to compensate for
the tendency to end movement of the driving shaft which
results because of the angularity of the faces of the bevel
driving gearing. When the motor is propelling the car,
the driving reaction on the angular teeth of the ring gear
produces a decided end thrust against the pinion shaft.
The roller bearing which is utilized to take care of the
radial load or to prevent side movement of the shaft
is not capable of withstanding this end thrust so a special
ball thrust bearing must be provided to assist the roller
bearing to preserve the proper relation between the driv-
ing pinion and the ring gear. All wheels of the Ford
car are carried by anti-friction bearings. The front wheels
are mounted on cup and cone ball bearings of the general
type shown at^A, Fig. 31, their practical application
being shown at Fig. 32. This form of bearing consists of
a pressed steel cup member forced into the hub shell cast-
ing and a cone member fitting the axle spindle tightly.
The space between the cup and cone is filled with steel
balls which carry the load with a rolling motion and thus
have much less friction than a plain bearing in which the
surfaces must sUde over each other.

The differential mechanism and the wheel end of the
axle utilize roller bearings of the general form shown at
Fig. 31, D. This bearing consists of a cage carrying a num-
ber of spiral rollers which roll on the steel shaft but which
do not bear directly against the housing tube as a steel
sleeve is introduced to form a track for the rollers to run
on. * The ball thrust bearing which is used at the front end
of the roller bearing supporting the pinion end of the pro-
peller shaft is of the general form shown at Fig. 31, C.
In this bearing the raceways have grooved ball tracks
formed on their faces, the balls being placed between them

118

The Ford Model T Car

in such a way that the bearing is suitable only to take loads
coming from a direction approximately parallel with
the driving shaft. These loads are called end thrusta
while loads applied at right angles to the driving shafts,
-as, for example, the weight load on the roller bearings at
the wheel end of the axle are termed radial loads. As a

s,«.

"""V

^.^...«,

£iji/o/fron *i

"•;

pni'^

SBiidle lioaii Bus

1 II

^^c^ '!",°wr*"

^u^^L

Sulmlle Bodu

1 IJ =■

M^E.

iF ^

^'~~~^~ Slatianaru Com
~-~- BallBearlaa

^u/

^^"----.DuU Rl-a

roller bearing consumes less power than a plain bearing
and as they are more enduring and require less attention
as well as being inexpensive, the entire axle and differen-
tial assembly is carried by roller bearings.

Each axle shaft revolves in two roller bearings, one
being placed near each side of the differential and one at
each of the outer ends of the drive axle bousing near the
wheel. The roller bearing consists of a group of hardened
steel rollers in the form of close wound coil springs which

Rear Axle Bearings 119

are prevented from coming in contact with each other
by a cage or retainer which is clearly shown at Fig. 31, B.
It will be apparent that the outer bearings or those at
the wheel end of the axle carry practically all of the radial
load due to car weight and driving strains. To com-
pensate for end thrust on the wheel drive axles, such as
is present when the wheels skid, thrust bearings are
provided at each side of the differential gear case. The
axle shafts cannot move outward because they are securely
keyed to the differential gear members, these transferring
any of the thrust load to babbit metal rings carried at
each side of the differential housing which in turn are
sandwiched in between steel thrust plates interposed be-
tween the axle housing and the babbit ring on one side
and the differential case and the babbit ring on its other
side. The function of the radius rods which extend from
the ends of the axle shaft housing to the flanged fitting
back of the ball joint is to strengthen the entire rear axle
construction as they form a triangle having the apex at
the universal joint end. Any tendency of either end of the
axle housing to move backwards or forwards or for the
housing enclosing the driving shaft to twist or bend is
corrected by these rods.

Purpose of Differential Gear. — One of the most im-
portant yet inconspicuous elements of any form of auto-
mobile driving system is the differential gear, but as this
is usually placed at a point where it is not easily seen by
the motorist and as but very little trouble is experienced
from this mechanism, many owners of cars are not aware
of its existence and do not realize the important work
performed by this relatively simple component. With-
out a differential gear it would be diflScult to control the
machine when driving around corners, so this really per-

120 The Ford Model T Car

forms an important function with both steering and
driving systems.

When turning corners with any four-wheel vehicle the
outer wheels must turn at a higher rate of speed than the
inner ones because they are describing a larger are of the
circle. The more sharply the vehicle is turned the greater
the difference in velocity between the inner and outer
wheels. In a horse-drawn conveyance all the wheels al:e
independent of each other and may all revolve at different
speeds if necessaiy, without interfering with each other
or impairing the action of the conveyance. In an automo-
bile different conditions prevail because while the front
wheels are usually independent of each other, the driv-
ing wheels must be connected together so that each will
receive its share of the energy produced by the motor and
will perform its quota of the work incidental to propelling
the vehicle.

In order to permit one of the driving wheels to turn
at a lower speed than its mate in rounding a comer the
balance or differential gear is used. Its simplest applica-
tion is shown at Fig. 33. From this it is patent that the
driving axle is split in the center and that the wheels are
mounted on and driven by distinct axle shafts. (See Fig.
30. ) At the inner end of each shaft a bevel gear is carried,
these being firmly secured to the axles so they revolve with
them. The main bevel-driven gear, which is actuated by
the driving pinion turned by the engine, is mounted in-
dependent of the axles and is coupled to them by means
of small bevel pinions which are applied so that they will
drive the gears on the axle shafts. Assuming that all
the gears are in mesh, as outlined, and that power is be-
ing applied to the driven gear, and that the resistance to
traction is the same at both rear wheels, the entire as-

Differential Gear AcUon 121

sembly comprised of driven gear, the differential pinions
attached to it and the axle shafts revolve as a unit.

If the resistance against the driving wheels varies so
'' one wheel tends to revolve faster than the other, the dif-
ferential pinions will not only turn around on the studs
on which they are mounted, but at the same time will run

around the gears on the axle shafts, because the bevel
driven gear carrying the studs on which the differential
pinions revolve moves forward. When turning a corner the
outer wheel must turn so much faster than the inner mem-
ber that it is just the same as though one of the wheels was
held stationary and the other turned. If both wheels are
turning forward at the same speed, the differential pinions
remain stationary and act simply as a lock which forms a
driving connection between gear No. 1 on axle shaft No.
1 and gear No. 2 on axle shaft No. 2. This will mean that

122 The Ford Model T Car

both wheels must turn in the same direction as long as
the work is uniformly distributed. Just as soon as the
resistances are unequal the differential pinions will turn
on their supporting studs and one member may turn at
comparatively slow speed while the other revolves at a
much faster rate. The action of the differential pinions
may be clearly understood by reference to Fig. 33 and
giving due consideration to the following principles. The
Game resistance at the point of contact between the driv-
ing wheels and the ground prevents the pinions from re-
volving on their own studs, and in this case they are carried
around by the supporting members and the ring gear. If
the resistance upon axle shaft No. 1 is greater than that
on axle shaft No. 2, the ring gear will rotate forward with
the wheel offering the least resistance and the differential
pinions will turn on their studs and run over the surface
of the gear which tends to remain stationary, this being
the one against which there is the greatest resistance.
The differential pinions can thus turn independently of
one gear wheel and run over its surface without turning it,
and at the same time act as a clutching member of suffi-
cient capacity on the other gear and axle to carry them in
the same direction as the ring gear and at a ratio of speed
which will depend upon the difference in resistance be-
tween the driving members and the ground.

Utility of Motor-Car Brakes. — One of the most important
of the components of the motor-car controlling system is
usually carried with and forms part of the rear construc-
tion, this being the braking means which is utilized to
bring the vehicle to a stop when it is desired to arrest
forward or backward motion. It will be evident that in
a horse-drawn vehicle the animal drawing it can be used
as brake, but that in any form of self-propelling convey-

Utility of Brakes 128

ance it is essential that some means of stopping be in-
cluded in the construction. Even if the clutch was oper-
ated in such a way that the motor was disconnected from
the driving wheels the conveyance would continue to move
because it had acquired a certain momentum which would
increase in value with the weight of the car and the speed
at which it was driven.

There are three brakes provided on the Ford chassis,
one of these being a service brake acting on the transmis-
sion gear, the other two being emergency members acting
on the drums carried by the rear wheels. The service or
transmission brake is clearly shown in* the view at the top
of Fig. 28 in connection with its operating pedal and is
also outlined at the bottom of the same illustration which
shows the gearing when the top portion of the gear case
is removed to expose the three transmission bands. The
transmission brake is the one normally used when driving
the car and is operated by the right hand pedal of the
control assembly which is marked B. When the pedal
is pushed forward it constricts an asbestos fabric
lined brake band around the drum that also forms the
casing for the multiple disk clutch assembly. As this
drum is part of the assembly to which the propeller shaft
is attached and as this in turn controls the rear wheels
through the medium of the bevel pinion carried at its
lower end, whenever the transmission assembly is gripped
by this brake band it will also retard the movement of the
rear wheels and if the brake pedal is pushed tightly enough
the friction will be so great that the rear wheels cannot
turn and must come to rest even on a steep incline. This
is called the ^^ service brake" because it is more gener-
ally used than the hand operated or emergency brake act-
ing directly on the rear wheel drums.

124 The Ford Model T Car

The emei^ency brakes are of the type shown at Pig. ,
34. These consist of a pair of semicircular east iron
shoe members held together against an anchorage pin and
an expanding cam by coil springs as shown. The diameter
of the circle formed by these two metal shoes is slightly
Jess than the inside diameter of the brake drum when the

BprlDB Haneer ff\

|1 K^AileHoia

rincOap

y^^S,

^^Sifcf Im

I^K'"""

^^^^^ffi

Ipifc^ i

Pw„.»„

-°™

J^^^^^

IBp 1

1 H

Bull BrnkB OBm^^,,^

^flHl^H^' </J

Jl- l^

Bub Brake emw-''''^

lC.„ IW

f ■

brake is not in use. If the hub brake cam is rodted,
however, so that instead of lying flat it is moved at such
an angle that the brake shoes are spread apart they will
grip the internal periphery of the pressed steel brake
drum, retarding or entirely stopping the movement of the
wheels, depending upon the pressure applied at the end of
the hand lever and the movement of the actuating c^.
As soon as the pressure is released the coil springs bring

Steering Gear Action 125

the brake shoes out of contact with the drum and permit
free rotation of the wheel.

The brake actuating cams are controlled by small
levers which are connected with, smaller members on the
ends of the control shaft which is worked by the hand
lever. Rods are utilized to join these levers, these being
guided by dips secured to the radius rods. When the
hand lever is pulled toward the operator or the rear of
the machine it moves the controller shaft and rods forward
and pulls the cam operating levers so these spread the
brake shoes apart. The emergency brake linkage is inter-
connected with the clutch actuating pedal so when the
handle is placed in a certain position the clutch will be dis-
engaged but the brakes will not be brought into action until
a further movement of the hand lever takes place. The
handle may be locked in any desired position by a simple
ratchet and pawl arrangement at its lower end. This is
a good feature as the emergency brakes may be applied to
prevent the car from moving when the motor is being
cranked or when it is left unattended on a grade. The
service brake may be operated at the same time as the
emergency brakes are, if desired, though it is only on very
steep hills that both brakes can be used to advantage.

The Ford Steering Gear. — The manner in which the
front wheels are carried by movable steering spindle mem-
bers has been clearly described in the first chapter, as was
the linkage by which the two steering knuckles are caused
to move simultaneously when the drag link connecting
the front axle with the steering gear is moved by the
hand wheel. It was explained that the steering arm at
the lower portion of the steering gear was moved by
the hand wheel carried at the top of the steering column
and shown at Fig. 35, A. The steering post is a metal

The Ford Model T Car

jt^^^^

^^^^^.

flteeriii»Ge«-.,_^_^ J^^^C

^^^^— —

" " ^^^

^^^^^«sr

lir^^y Jj

g^^^!!^»4-n«Mii.L«

StMriMC G«r Csm'^^^I^'

"^^r "^'

.^^

^0^

.„. s ^

Steering Gear
LjT^ Internal Gear Cuae

■■|A ^Throttle Levw

Drive pinion—" V \TJ« fj

t&^^r"^ Pinion. Pi^

iiPI'V^^^^^^?--— -Top ot Steenne

SleerinK Gear
Pinion.

^'^"---Tbrottle Quadnnt

rig. 35. — Top view of the Ford Steering Oear at A Showing Steerlnc
Wheel and Motor Speed Controlling Levers. Flanetuy Bodiictloa
Oearlng Is Depicted at B which Shows Oear Oomparbnmt wUh
Cover Bemoved.

rod carried iDside of the column ivhich is capable of being
moved a certain number of degrees to rock the steerii^
arm, this being limited bj' the travel of the front wheels.
The steering coliinm is attached to the dash and is set at
such an angle that the hand wheel is brought in a con-

Steering Gear Action 127

venient position for the operator. The steering post is
housed in a metal tube having an inside diameter suflS-
ciently large to permit of free rotation of the steering
post and also to carry the spark and throttle actuating
rods which are worked by levers placed below the steering
wheel in a position convenient for the operator. The
steering whee^ consists of a metal spider having four
arms which terminate at the oval section rim which is of
wood. These arms converge to a boss which forms the
center of the steering wheel, a hole being machined in this
boss so that the wheel is a tight fit on the member to which
it is attached by key and retention nut.

The Ford steering gear differs radically from the con-
ventional forms and is a patented design. The reduction
gears which permit of a greater degree of hand wheel
movement than of the steering arm are located at the
top of the steering column instead of at the bottom as in
most other cars. Whereas the worm gear reduction is
popular on other types the Ford gearing operates on
the epicyclic or planetary principle. The gearing is
carried in a compartment immediately under the steering
wheel which has a removable cover to permit of examining
the gears which require but little attention other than
keeping the compartment filled with grease. The con-
struction of this gearing is clearly shown at Fig. 35, B.
Four gears of the external spur form are used, one of
these being in the center while three surround this mem-
ber, being carried by studs secured to a triangular plate
at the top of the steering post. The casing is provided
with teeth on its inner periphery so that it is an internal
spur gear. The three outer gears are in mesh with this
as well as the central member to which the steering wheel
is attached. When the wheel is rotated it turns the center

128 The Ford Model T Car

pinion which causes the other three pinions attached to a
steering column to rotate also. Wlien the steering wheel
is turned to the right the three outer gears are turned in
the opposite direction but they are restrained by the in-
ternal gear case in such a way that the top of the steering
post to which they are fastened moves in the same direc-
tion as the hand wheel but travels slower. This provides
a certain amount of leverage which makes it easy for the
operator to steer the car even under unfavorable road
conditions. The spark and throttle levers may be set at
any desired position because they work on fixed quad-
rants attached to the steering column. The spark and
throttle control levers do not turn with the steering wheel..

Construction of Ford Tires. — The most couunon form of
tire, and that used on Ford automobiles, is composed of
a hollow endless rubber ring or tube of circular section
filled with air and protected from Avear by means of an
outer shoe or casing. The use of air under compression
provides a very resilient medium for supporting the
vehicle, and of the various forms of rubber tires the pneu-
matic form is the one that is the most desirable for
pleasure cars. The development of the modem automo-
bile may be attributed largely to the advances made in
pneumatic-tire construction, as these members made it
possible to drive automobiles at high speeds over rough
road surfaces without stressing the mechanism unduly or
causing discomfort to the passengers. The Ford front
tires are 30" x 3", the rear ones 30^' x 3>^". These are
economical as they are easy to buy and give excellent
mileage if the car is driven carefully.

The pneumatic tire of the present day is invariably of
the double-tube type and is composed of two members, the
inner tube and the shoe or carcass. The inner member is

Pneumatic Tire Construction

129

utilized to retain the air and is made of a very pure
rubber or resilient rubber composition witb walls about
an eighth of an inch thick for cars of average weight.

While this tube is very elastic and is airtight, it would not
be strong enough or have adequate resistance to be run
directly in contact with the road surface ; therefore it is
necessary to protect it by a shoe composed of layers of
fabric and rubber composition. The shoe member is pro-

The Ford Model T Car

Tig. 37, — Sectional View Showing ConBtructton of Standai'd Sclinulcs
UniveiBal Check Valve For lutroduciug Air to PaeutnaUc Tire Innei
Tabes. This is Utilized In Practically All Tires of Amerlcaa Mwuh
fdctuxe.

Pneumatic Tire Construction 131

vided with beads on its inner periphery designed to inter-
lock with the rim channel, as shown on Fig. 36. The main
portion of the outer casing is composed of five or more
layers of a Sea Island cotton fabric * ' f rictioned " with
high-grade rubber composition. This is forced into the
mesh of the cloth by machinery so the fabric will be practi-
cally waterproof and will join intimately with other plies
by a process of vulcanization when the shoe is cured after
it is built up. Outside of the fabric body a layer of a very
resilient rubber, appr0ximately of crescent form, known
as the padding, is provided to give a certain degree of
elasticity. On top of this strips of heavy fabric called the
*^ breaker strip" are interposed to offer a certain degree
of resistance to any sharp object that might penetrate
the tread and go through the padding and into the fabric
body if the breaker strips were not interposed to deflect
the puncturing object to one side.

The tread is the part of the tire that is subjected
to the greatest stress as it must resist the abrading in-
fluence of the road and when the tire is used on the rear
wheels, the wearing effect of the friction produced by the
tractive effort which exists at the point of contact be-
tween the driving member and the ground. The tread is
of very tough rubber composition and differs from the
material used as padding or for the inner tube in that it
does not possess a very great degree of elasticity. This
quality is sacrificed for that of greater strength and re-
sistance to wear, which is more essential at this point.

The air is introduced in the tire through a simple form
of automatic valve which is securely attached to the inner
tube. As the inner tube becomes distended by the air
pumped into it, it forces the beads of the tire outward and
clinches the shoe so firmly in the rim channel that it will

182 The Ford Model T Car

be impossible to dislodge it without the use of special
tire irons, and then only when the air pressure is relieved
from the inner tube. A detailed view of the valve stem in
the open and closed positions is shown at Fig. 37 and the
construction of this simple fitting can be easily under-
stood. The valve is held against its seat by a tension
spring and will only open when the valve stem is depressed
by the hand or from the pressure of the air forced against
it from a pump when it is desired to inflate the tire. While
the air pressure from the pump will be sufficient to force
the valve from its seat, the air pressure from the inside of
the tire only serves to hold it more firmly in place. Com-
plete instructions for the manipulation, care and repair
of Ford tires is given in the next chapter.

CHAPTER IV

DRIVING AND MAINTENANCE OF FORD CARS

Steps Before Starting the Engine — ^How to Start the Ford Motor —
Controlling Ford Cars — General Driving Instructions — Suggestions
for Oiling — Winter Care of Automobiles — The Ford Gas Lighting
System — Electric Lighting for Ford Cars — Tools and Supplies for
Pneumatic Tire Repair — ^Tire Manipulation Hints — ^Tire Repair
and Maintenance — Tools for Ford Cars — A Typical Engine Stop
Analyzed — Conditions That Cause Failure of the Ignition System
— Common Defects in Fuel Systems — Faults in Oiling and Cooling
Systems — Adjusting Transmission — Adjusting Loose Front WheeUi —
What to Do When Rear Brakes Do Not Hold.

There is no point in connection with automobiles that
should be covered more completely than that of general
operation and maintenance. Even if the motorist does not
intend to repair his own car he should be able to care for it
intelligently and to locate the various troubles that are
apt to materialize while the car is in operation. An en-
gine stop on a lonely road will be a serious matter to one
who does not understand the principles of action of the
power plant, but only an incident to one who does. If the
general principles are understood and the methods of
locating ordinary troubles are kept in mind the motor-
ist will be able to keep the car in operation and will fix
many of the minor derangements Avhich otherwise would
need attention from the repairman, who might not be
available when most needed. In presenting this chapter
on driving and maintenance the writer wishes to empha-
size that endeavor has been made to group practically all

133

134 The Ford Model T Car

the mformation which the operator of the Ford car must
have in order to drive intelHgently in one chapter. In-
cluded with general operating instructions will be found
suggestions for systematic location of power plant defects
which should be of value to the novice.

Steps Before Starting the Engine. — ^Before attempting to
start the motor there are a number of preliminary pre-
cautions to be taken in order to make sure that the car
is ready for the road. The gasoline container of the Ford
automobile has a capacity of ten gallons, and this should

Fig. 39. — ^Diagram Showing Method of Marking Measuxlng Stick to

Indicate Contents of Ford Tea Gallon Tank.

be filled practically to the top, and care should be taken
never to start out with less than half a tank full. In order
to determine the amount of fuel available a measuring
stick may be made according to the dimensions given at
Fig. 39, which can be introduced into the top of filler open-
ing to gauge the supply of liquid in the container. The
mark to indicate 1 gallon should be made 1^%2" from the
lower end of the stick. The mark to indicate 2 gallons
should be made 2%6" from the bottom and so on according
to the figures given in the diagram. In order to have the

Steps Before Starting Motor 135

liquid show it may be well to paint the stick with a black
enamel before marking it. When filling a gasoline tank it
is important to use a strainer to prevent water and other
foreign substances from reaching the tank interior.
Chamois skin is an excellent strainer for gasoline. Three
or four layers of fine mesh cotton cloth may also be placed
across the mouth of the funnel if the chamois is not avail-
able.

As gasoline vapor is explosive it is well to make sure
that there are no naked flames within several feet of the
tank. When filling the tank at night be sure that the oil
side lights are extinguished before any fuel is poured. It
is important that no matches should be lighted anywhere
near where gasoline has been spilled as the air for several
feet surrounding the spot has become saturated with
highly explosive vapor. The small vent holes in the fuel
tank cap should always be free, as if this is plugged up it
will prevent the gasoline from flowing into the carburetor,
as the fuel would become air-bound in the tank. As has
been previously explained, any dirt or foreign matter that
would pass into the carburetor will usually fall to the bot-
tom of the sediment bulb on the bottom of the tank, from
which it may be drained out by opening a petcock screwed
into the bottom of the sediment bulb casting. A shut-off
valve is also provided so the gasoline supply in the tank
may be conserved at such times as is necessary to remove
the feed pipe running to the carburetor. After being sure
that the gasoline tank is full the next step is to ascertain
that the shut-off valve is opened so that the liquid can flow
to the vaporizer.

Before starting out always make sure that a proper
supply of medium body, high grade gas engine cylinder oil
is poured into the crank case through the breather pipe

136 The Ford Model T Car

at the front of the engine. This is clearly shown in the
various views of the engine in other chapters and in Fig.
45 herewith. This opening is covered by a brass cap which
may be easily withdrawn as it is held in place only by
frictional contact. In the back of the lower part of the
flywheel casing, which is also the reservoir that holds the
oil, are found two petcocks. Be sure the car is on a level
floor and pour in oil slowly until it runs out of the upper
petcock. Have a can So that the oil running out will be
saved. Leave this petcock or small faucet open until the
oil stops running, then close it. After the car has been
used long enough for the engine to become thoroughly free
and easy running, which indicates that all parts have at-
tained the proper bearing, the best results will be obtained
by carrying the oil at a level about midway between the
two petcocks. If the lower petcock is opened and no oil
comes out a proper supply should be immediately placed
in the crank case.

Having made sure that there is a proper supply of fuel
and lubricating oil the next step is to insure that the cool-
ing supply is adequate. Remove the cap at the top of the
radiator and fill with clean, fresh water. If water is taken
from a stream or from any other source where there is
any question of its cleanliness it is advisable to strain it
through muslin or other similar material to keep dirt from
getting in and constricting the small bore of the radiator
tubes. The Ford cooling system has a capacity for slightly
more than three gallons of water. Never run the engine
unless the radiator has been filled. The water should be
poured in until it runs out of the overflow pipe to the
ground which may be accepted as an indication that both
radiator and the cylinder water jacket have received an
adequate supply. When starting out with a new car or

How To Start Motor 137

after the engine has been overhauled and parts refitted it
is good practice to examine the radiator frequently and to
make sure that it is kept properly filled. If the car is used
for long distances on slow speed, such as hill climbing and
pulling through sand the engine may heat up sufiiciently
as to boil out the water so that great care should be taken
when operating a car under these conditions to replenish
the water supply as often as may be necessary. If the
only water available contains alkalies and other salts which
will deposit sediment in the radiator and water jackets
attempt should be made to secure clean soft water such as
rain water.

How to Start the Ford Motor. — The essential precau-
tions enumerated having been taken, the first step in
starting the motor is to look at the steering wheel and
notice the position of the spark and throttle control levers
which are clearly shown in inset, Fig. 42. The right hand
lever is called a ^Hhrottle,'' as it controls the amount of
gaseous mixture drawn into the motor. ^^Tien the power
plant is in operation the nearer the operator this lever
is the faster the engine will turn and the greater the
power output. The left hand lever controls the spark
which should be in retard position or at its extreme posi-
tion away from the operator when starting the motor. It
is possible in many cases to advance this lever three or
four notches by moving it toward the seat without any
danger of injury in cranking. The throttle lever should
be placed about four or five notches down to secure easy
starting. The reason it is desirable not to advance the
spark control lever too far is that the engine may kick
back. This may result in damage to the wrist or arm of
the person cranking the motor unless care is taken in the
method of handling the starting crank. Before cranking

138

The Ford Model T Car

the engine one should make sure that the emergency brake
lever is pulled back as far as it will go. When in this posi-
tion the clutch is out and the hub brakes are engaged, which
prevents the ear from moving. After inserting the switch

key in tlic switch on the coil box, throw the switch lever
as far to the left as it will go toward the point marked
"magneto." The engine cannot be started until the elec-
trical circuit is complete. If batteries are used for igni-
tion as an auxiliary it may be possible to start the engine
easier on the battery current, tliough a very easy start may

How To Start Motor 139

be secured on the magneto provided the coil vibrators are
properly adjusted.

After having put the switch in either battery or mag-
neto position the next step is to crank the engine by lifting
on the starting crank at the front of the car. Take hold
of the handle and push the crank in toward the car until
you feel the ratchet on the crank engage with the pin
passing through the crank shaft. The crank handle should
be pulled upward with a quick swing. The proper method
of grasping a crank is shown at Fig. 40. ^ It will be ob-
served that the crank is grasped in the left hand and that
any tendency to backfire will pull the handle out of the
hand by opening the fingers. The improper method of
cranking is shown at Fig. 41. In this case the right hand
is placed around the crank handle and the engine is started
by pushing down against the compression instead of lift-
ing up on the handle to overcome the compression resist-
ance. It will be evident that if the spark advance lever
is set so that an early explosion obtains this will drive
the handle vigorously backward, which force is partially
resisted by the tensed arm of the operator. There are
times when it is necessary to turn the crank vigorously
which is called *' spinning'' the engine. In this case be
sure that the spark lever is fully retarded, otherwise a
sudden backfire may cause injury.

If the engine has been standing for a tune it is advis-
able to prime the carburetor by pulling on the small wire
at the lower left corner of the radiator while giving the
engine two or three quarter turns with the starting handle.
In this case the crank should be grasped by the right
hand but care should be taken to only pull up against the
compression. In cold weather gasoline does not evap-
orate very readily so it is somewhat more diflScult to start

138

The Ford Model T Car

key in the switch on tlie coil box, throw the switch lever
as far to the left as it will go toward the point marked
"magneto." The engine cannot be started until the elec-
trical circuit is complete. K batteries are used for igni-
tion as an auxiliary it may be possible to start the engine
easier on the battery current, though a very easy start may

How To Start Motor 141

throttle lever several notches, throw on the switch and
crank briskly.

After starting the motor it is advisable to advance
the spark half way down the quadrant and to let the motor
run until thoroughly heated up. If one starts out with
a cold motor it is not likely to have much power and it
would be easy to * ' stall ' ' it. It is said that the advantage
of turning on the switch last after priming is that there is
plenty of gas in the cylinders to keep the motor running.
After the motor is warmed up the carburetor adjustment
should be turned back to the proper running position. If,
for any reason, the engine is warm and does not start
readily it is probably because the engine has been flooded
with an over rich gas mixture. The remedy for this con-
dition is to turn the carburetor adjusting needle down by
screwing the needle valve on the dash to the right until
the needle seats in the carburetor. Crank the engine
briskly to exhaust the rich gas, then throw on the switch
and start the engine. As soon as the cylinders fire turn
back the needle to the normal running position.

If the engine fails to start the following defective
conditions may be responsible: Water in the gasoline;
water or hardened oil in commutator ; coil vibrators out
of proper adjustment ; gas mixture too thin ; gas mixture
too rich; magneto contact point in transmission cover
raised because of foreign matter or short circuiting by a
piece of wire from brake lining ; gasoline supply shut off ;
water frozen in gasoline tank sediment bulb; poor con-
tact at coil switch; loose magneto wire leading to coil;
loose timer wires ; engine too cold to properly vaporize gas
(only in zero weather). Should the engine start, run for
a time and then stop suddenly, one should make sure that
there is plenty of fuel in the gasoline tank. The trouble

142 The Ford Model T Car

may be a flooded carburetor; dirt in carburetor or feed
pipe; magneto wire loose at either terminal; magneto
current collecting point obstructed; engine overheated
on account of insufficient oil or water supply.

If the engine lacks power and runs irregularly, which
is called *' skipping'' at low speed it may be due to: im-
perfect gas mixture; dirty spark plugs; poorly adjusted
coil vibrators ; poor compression ; air leak through intake
manifold ; weak exhaust valve springs, too little clearance
between valve stem and operating push rod; spark plug
points too near together.

If the engine misfires at high speed, it may result from
imperfect contact in the interior of the commutator; too
much air gap between the points of the spark plugs ; im-
perfect gas mixture or poorly adjusted vibrators. When^
an engine overheats, the most common condition is run-,
ning with too rich gas mixture and retarded spark. Other
troubles are : insufficient lubricating oil ; not enough water
in the radiator ; fan belt too loose or slipping ; water cir-
culation poor, owing to sediment in radiator tubes; or
carbon deposits in combustion chambers. These carbon
deposits may be also present on the piston head and will
result in loss of power as well as produce knocking sounds.
If a loud knock is evident it is usually due to a loose con-
necting rod or crank shaft bearing or running with the
spark advanced too far and it is always the sign of a badly
overheated engine.

Controlling the Ford Car. — The Ford car is one of the
most popular of moderate-priced automobiles and over
600,000 of the Model ^'T'' are now on the road. The
control system of this car is extremely simple and yet it
is different from that of any other automobile. The
gearset, which has been previously described, is a plane-

Control System Explained 143

tary type which gives two forward speeds and a reverse
motion. The conventional form of steering wheel is used
to control the direction of car travel, and spark and throt-
tle levers are mounted on steering column beneath the
wheel to control the speed of the power plant. It is in

Guonne Adimtment

Fig. 42.— Tbe ContKd System of tbe Ford Ifodel T Car.

the method of obtaining the various speed ratios that the
control system is distinctive. As will be seen by refer-
ring to Fig. 42, three pedals and a hafld lever are provided
on the left side of the car. The pedal on the extreme left
side controls the high and low-speed clutches and is
marked "C" That nest to it, which is marked "R," is

144 The Ford Model T Car

used to constrict the reverse band of the transmission
and obtain reverse motion. The pedal at the right, which
is provided with a letter **B'' cast on its surface, is used
to apply the foot brake.

The hand lever engages the high speed or direct drive
clutch when thrown forward and when pulled back it
actuates the emergency brake which cannot be applied
without releasing the direct drive clutch. The lever may
"Be set in a neutral position and the clutch will be released
without applying the brake when it is approximately
vertical. When the high speed is in and the hand lever
is thrown way forward the high speed clutch may be re-
leased by a light pressure on pedal *^C aiid a further
movement » of this pedal will apply the low speed. Thus
one pedal gives control of both high and low speeds for-
ward and the clutch can be released in exactly the same
manner as that of a sliding gear driven car when it is
desired to slow up such as for turning a corner, aescend-
ing a hill or passing another vehicle.

Before starting the car the hand lever must be in a
vertical position, this releasing the clutch and applying
the emergency brakes. To start the car, after the engine
has been started, the foot is placed on the clutch pedal to
keep it in a neutral position while the hand lever is thrown
as far forward as it will go. The engine is then accel-
erated and the clutch pedal is pushed forward until the
slow speed band tightens around the drum of the trans-
mission and the car gathers headway on the lower ratio.
After it has attained a certain momentum the clutch pedal
is allowed to drop back gradually into the high-speed
position. The foot may then be removed until such times
that the clutch must be disconnected. Before applying
the foot brake, which is done by pressing with the right

General Driving Instructions 145

foot upon the pedal marked '*B,** the clutch pedal should
be put in neutral position with the left foot.

To reverse the car, it must first be brought to a stand-
still. The engine is kept running and the clutch is dis-
engaged with the hand lever, which is placed in the neutral
position but not pulled far enough back to apply the emer-
gency brake. The reverse pedal marked ^'R" is then
pushed forward with the left foot leaving the right one
free to use on the brake pedal if needed. To stop the
car, the throttle is closed so the engine will not race ; the
high speed is released by pressing the clutch pedal for-
ward into its neutral position and applying the foot brake
slowly, but firmly, until the forward motion of the car is
arrested. It is imperative that the foot be retained on the
clutch pedal until the hand lever is pulled back to its
neutral position. The placing of the spark and throttle
levers is clearly shown in the inset in the right-hand
corner of the cut, both levers being pulled back to accel-
erate the motor and pushed forward to slow it down.

General Driving Instructions. — The following instruc-
tions apply to all types of gasoline automobiles as much
as to the Ford and may be followed to advantage by all
motorists. The gear-shift lever should always be placed
in a neutral position when the car is stopped, whether it
is left alone or attended. The clutch should always be
applied gradually and as slowly as possible because too
sudden or harsh engagement will produce stresses that
will injure the tires or driving mechanism of the chassis.
Never allow the engine to race or run excessively fast
when changing speeds, and it is well not to undertake to
change speeds with either motor or car inmning at high
speed. When changing down, i. e., from a higher to a
lower gear, allow the car to slow down until its speed is

146 The Ford Model T Car

about the same as that which will be produced by the
lower gear ratio desired before the clutch is engaged to
produce the lower speed.

Always drive a car slowly and cautiously until you
are thoroughly familiar with the control mechanism and
the methods of stopping the car. When driving up grades
on the high speed, if the motor shows any tendency to
labor, shift back into the lower gear ratio which has been
provided for that purpose. Many motorists believe that
the best test of a car's ability is to rush all hills or bad
spots in the roads on the direct drive. It should be re-
membered, that the lower speed ratio was provided for
use at all times when employing the high speed might
produce injurious stresses in the motor. All unusual
noises should be investigated at once as these sounds
usually presage more or less serious trouble. A gasoline
car should never be driven with a slipping clutch, and it
is imperative that the brakes and steering gear be fre-
quently inspected to make sure that they are in proper
order.

One should never attempt to drive Ford cars at high
speeds unless the tire casings are in perfect condition and
the road surfaces good. When driving on clay or muddy
roads, or on wet asphalt, care must be taken in turning
corners and the car should be driven cautiously to avoid
dangerous side slipping or skidding. When driving on
unfavorable highway surfaces always keep one side of
the car on firm ground, if possible. Brakes should always
be carefully applied, especially if the road surfaces are
wet. An automobile should never be brought to a stop
in mud, clay or sand, snow or slush, if it can be avoided.
Whenever road conditions are unfavorable the smooth
tread tires of the driving wheels should always be fitted

General Driving Inatractions

148 The Ford Model T Car

with chain-tire grips, as shown at Fig. 43, to insure
having adequate traction.

All motorists should familiarize themselves as much
as possible with the mechanism of their cars and should
feel competent enough to make the ordinary adjustments
and minor repairs before any long trips are attempted.
A full equipment of tools and spare tires and casings
should be carried at all times. It is well to remember
that the manufacturer of the car has issued a set of in-
structions for its care and maintenance, and these should
be followed as closely as possible because intelligent care
of any piece of machinery means long life and reliable
service and the automobile is no exception to the rule.

Suggestions for Oiling. — One of the most important
points to be observed in connection with gasoline auto-
mobile operation is that all parts be oiled regularly. It
is not enough to apply lubricant indiscriminately to the
various chassis parts, but it must be done systematically
and logically to secure the best results and insure econom-
ical use of lubricant. The most important parts are the
power plant and transmission system and the engine is
but one point in the car that must be properly oiled at all
times to obtain satisfactory results. Some of the run-
ning-gear parts are relatively unimportant, others demand
regular inspection and oiling. A very comprehensive
oiling chart is presented at Fig. 44, this showing prac-
tically all of the points that require oil as well as giving
instructions regarding the character of the lubricant
needed and how often it should be applied. Some of the
points are governed by special instructions, these being
the transmission case, timer, and rear axle. Use only the
best medium body cylinder oil in the Ford motor. The
writer has obtained excellent results by putting in a quart

150

The Ford Model T Car

of lubricant to every five gallons of gasoline, the oil was
introduced through the breather pipe every time that
amount of fuel was placed in the tank.

Neither the transmission ease nor the differential case
on the rear axle should be filled with heavy "Dope"

'y BnatHtr Ogenlnii
■iTIirougli aihloh Oil it
A Poured (n(D Cnjina

oil Can

\ TImsrCaosf

(
Tlm>r Ca-ir^
Retalalng
Spring

starting \/^M\\\

Van arlo.

Fig. 15. — Method of OlUng tbe Foid Commutator or Timer Wttb UgU
Oil. Note Breather Opening Back of Timer TbrougL Whlcb OH 1*
Poured Into Crank Case.

widely sold, which may contain fiber or cork particles to
make for more silent operation. If geairs are noisy it
is either because they are worn or out of adjustment
and the use of the nostrums and freak lubricants will not
improve their operation. The rear axle differential hous-
ing should be filled with as light mineral grease as it ii ,
possible "to get, those having about the consistenty (rf;
vaseline and containing graphite being most desirable as. *

Ford Chassis Lubrication 151

lubricants. Light oils should not be used in the rear axle
housing, because these will not stay in place but leak out
over the brakes and will not have sufficient body to cushion
the gear teeth. The only other point on the chart which
needs explanation is lubrication of the timer interior.
This should be oiled, as it is a roller contact form and
a few drops of magneto or 3-in-l oil should be applied to
the roll and the contact segments once a week. The timer
case should be removed and all old, dirty oil washed out
with gasoline before fresh lubricant is supplied. Never
use graphite grease or any heavy oil in a timer case be-
cause these will not only interfere with regular ignition
by short circuiting the current, but they will clog up the
timer and prevent the roller establishing proper contact
with the segments. After a car is oiled it is well to go
over all the exposed joints with a piece of cloth to remove
the accumulation of surplus oil on the outside of the parts
which serves no useful purpose and which only acts to
attract and retain dust and grit. The instructions given
on the chart can be followed to advantage on many types
of gasoline cars, though, of course, the different construc-
tions will have to be treated as the peculiarities of design
dictate.

A systematic method of lubricating the various parts
is much to be preferred to the usual haphazard way in
which the cars are oiled. The speedometer may be used
to check off the mileage made by the car and if a note is
made of the distance covered no trouble should be experi-
enced in following the chart at Fig. 44. The simplicity
of the Ford car makes for easy lubrication as the entire
mechanism can be thoroughly oiled in less than five min-
utes. The places needing lubrication, itemized under the
heads of mUeage covered, follow :

152 The Ford Model T Car

Lubricate After 200 Miles* Driving.

Lubricant Number Name of Parts

Oil 2 Front axle, steering knuckle pivots or spindle bolts.

Oil 2 Front spring shackles and bolts.

Oil 2 Yokes of tie rod.

Oil 1 Steering ball socket.

Oil 1 Commutator or timer.

Oil 2 Rear hub brake cams.

Oil 2 Rear spring shackles and bolts.

Turn grease cup 1 Fan hub.

Lubricate After 500 Miles* Driving.

Turn grease cup 1 Steering post bracket.

Turn grease cup 1 Universal joint of shaft.

Turn grease cup 1 Driving shaft front bearing.

Grease 2 Front wheel hubs.

Lubricate After 1,000 Miles' Driving.

Orease 1 Differential housing.

Lubricate After 2,000 Miles' Driving.
Oil 1 Control bracket.

Lubricate After 5,000 Miles' Driving.

Grease 1 Steering gear internal gear case.

Lubricate Daily.

Oil 1 Motor.

Lubricate Occasionally.

Oil

Fan belt shaft.

Oil

Fan belt pulley.

Oil

Crank handle bearing.

Oil

Yokes of brake rods.

In referring to the process of oiling, this means using
a sufficient quantity to lubricate the bearing parts thor-
oughly, and turning the grease cups means that these as-
sumedly contain grease. Greasing means packing the
bearing or housing until it is filled. The caretaker can
examine the condition of the grease cups, and when these
are found properly filled they should be screwed down.

Winter Care of Automobiles 153

Filling and screwing down each cup three times, to insure
ample supply of lubricant being in the bearing, is a safe
practice to follow. The fourth time filled the cup can be
left for the stated mileage interval. Care should be taken
to wipe the cups clean before filling, to prevent dirt being
carried into thfe bearings, and the oilers should be cleaned
with equally good reascjn.

The best attention can be given at the end of the day 's
or night 's driving, which will require but very little time,
for conditions will all be favorable. The engine should
be wiped clean while it is warm, for the oil or grease and
dust accumulated will be soft enough to remove easily.
The oil cups should be filled, all the grease cups turned
according to the mileage for the day, the fuel supply re-
newed, the water supply in radiator replenished, and the
oil in the engine case brought to the required level. The
next time the machine is wanted it will be ready for use
and the owner will know that it can be driven 200 miles
or more with absolute certainty that it will have sufficient
oil at all points except the engine which should be looked
at at the end of 100 miles to make sure there is enough
oil in the flywheel compartment.

Systematic attention to oiling and greasing, such as
has been described, will so familiarize a man with the
normal conditions that he will note whether or not there
is wear of any of the moving parts, and one will find that
there is usually need of tightening nuts and screws that
will slacken, no matter how well they have been set, and
these ought to be tightened. It is easy to discover loose
parts while oiling and take immediate steps to remedy
the defective condition.

Winter Care of Automobiles. — ^While motoring through-
out the entire year is not unusual, many owners of cars,

154 The Ford Model T Car

especially in those portions of the country where the win-
ter climate is exceptionally severe, put up their car for
the winter period. If the car is kept in service the most
important thing to do is to provide some good anti-freez-
ing compound in order to prevent the water in the radiator
and cylinders from congealing. There is some difference
of opinion regarding the best solution to use to prevent
cracked water jackets and burst radiators. Before we
attempt to answer the questions often asked regarding
the best anti-freezing compound, it will be well to consider
the requirements of such compounds. To begin with it
should have no deleterious effects on the metals or rubber
used in the circulating system. It must be easily dis-
solved or combined with water, should be reasonably cheap,
and not subject to waste by evaporation or be of such
character that it will deposit foreign matter in the pipes.
The boiling point should be higher than that of water to
prevent boiling away of the solution at comparatively low
temperature.

Solutions of calcium chloride have been very popular
with motorists, and the writer will first discuss the use of
this substance. The freezing point of the solution de-
pends upon the proportion of the salt to the water. An
important factor to be considered is that if the parts of
the circulation system are composed of different metals
there is liable to be a certain electrolytic action between
the salt and the dissimilar metals at the points of juncture,
a certain corrosion taking place, and the intensity of this
corrosive effect is dependent upon the strength of the
solution. As calcium chloride is derived from hydro-
chloric acid, which has very strong effect on metals, and
as there may be particles of the free acid in the solution,
a certain undesirable corrosive action may take place. In

Winter Care of Automobiles 155

using calcium chloride when compounding an anti-freezing
solution care must be taken that commercially pure salt
is employed, as the cruder grades will liberate a larger
percentage of free acid. The mistake should not be made
of using chloride of lime, which has much the same ap-
pearance, but the corrosive action of which is very great.

It is well to test a solution of calcium^hloride for acid
before placing it in the radiator. A piece of blue litmus
paper may be obtained at any drug store and immersed
in the solution. If the paper turns red it is a sign that
there is acid present. Acid may be neutralized by the
addition of a small quantity of slacked lime.

The solutions may be made in these proportions :

Two pounds of salt to the gallon of water will freeze
at eighteen degrees Fahrenheit.

Three pounds of salt to the gallon of water will freeze *
at one and five-tenths degrees Fahrenheit.

Four pounds of salt to the gallon will freeze at seven-
teen degrees Fahrenheit below zero.

Five pounds of salt to the gallon will freeze at thirty-
nine degrees Fahrenheit below zero.

It must be remembered that the more salt to the solu-
tion, the greater the electrolytic effect and the greater
the liability of the deposit of salt crystals which may ob-
struct the free flow of the liquid.

Glycerine is usually considered quite favorably, but
it has disadvantages, It often contains free acid, though
the action on metals will be imperceptible in average solu-
tions. While it does not attack metal piping to any ex-
tent it is sure destruction to rubber hose and should not
be used in a car in which part of the circulation system
piping is of rubber. Glycerine is expensive and it is
liable to decompose under the influence of heat and pro-

1.51) The Ford Model T Car

l)ortions added to the water must be higher than of some
other substaiiee»s.

Denatured aloohol is without doubt the best substance
to use as it does not have any destructive action on the
Mi(4als or rubber hose, will not form deposits of foreign
matter, and has no electrolytic effect. A solution of sixty
IXM* cent, water and forty per cent, alcohol will stand
twenty-five degrees below zero without freezing. The
chief disadvantage to its use is that it evaporates more
rapidly than watc^r and the solution is liable to become
too light as })roportions of alcohol to water is concerned.
The percentage's rociuired are shown in the following sen-
t(*iic(^s :

\Vat(jr, iiiiH^ty-five per cent.; alcohol, five per cent.
rn^ezes at twonty-fivo degrees Fahrenheit.

Water, eighty-five per cent. ; alcohol, fifteen per cent.
freezes at eleven degrees Fahrenlieit.

AVater, eighty per cent.; alcohol twenty per cent.
freezes at five degrees Fahrenheit.

AVatc^', seventy per cent.; alcohol, thirty per cent.
I'nMV.es at nine degrees Fahrenheit below zero.

AVater, sixty-five per cent.; alcohol, thirty-five per
cent. ; f nx^zes at sixteen degrees Fahrenheit below zero.

A^arious mixtures have been tried of alcohol, glycerine
and water, and good results obtained. The addition of
glycerine to a water-alcohol solution reduces liability of
(evaporation to a large extent, and when glycerine is used
in such proi)ortions it is not liable to damage the rubber
hose. The proportions recommended are a solution of half
glycerine and half alcohol to w^ater. The glycerine in
such a solution will remain practically the same, not being
subject to evai)oration, and water and alcohol must be
supplied if amount of solution in radiator is not enough.

Winter Care of Automobiles 157

The freezing temperatures of such solutions of varying
proportions are as follows :

Water, eighty-five per cent. ; alcohol and glycerine,
fifteen per cent. ; freezes at twenty degrees Fahrenheit.

AVater, seventy-five per cent.; alcohol and glycerine,
twenty-five per cent. ; freezes at eight degrees Fahrenheit.

Water, seventy per cent. ; alcohol and glycerine, thirty
per cent.; freezes at five degrees Fahrenheit below zero.

Water, sixty per cent. ; alcohol and glycerine, forty
2»er cent. ; freezes at twenty-three degrees Fahrenheit
below zero.

The proper proportions to be used must of course be
governed by conditions of locality, but it is better to be
safe than sorry, antl make the solutions strong enough for
any extreme that may be expected.

After due care has been taken with the cooling system

158 The Ford Model T Car

to prevent freezing, the next point to observe is the Inbri-
cation of the motor. This will depend on the grades of
oil which are normally employed. As a general rule it
is well to use a lighter grade in winter than that utilized
during warmer weather. If an acetylene lighting system
utilizing a gas generator is fitted it is necessary that the
water used in the water tank or the water jacket provided
on some generators be drained off and replaced with a
solution of denatured alcohol and water of the proper
consistency for the degree of temperature liable to be
met with.

During cold weather, a certain amount of difficulty is
always experienced in starting the car, especially when
one considers the low grade of gasoline used at the pres-
ent time. The Ford engine is not provided with petcocks
through which gasoline may be injected as in other auto-
mobiles. Special spark plugs may be obtained having a
peteock incorporated with the plug body or a special
primer may be placed between the carburetor and mani-
fold, as shown at Fig. 46. Pulling a wire when cranking a
car equipped with the primer permits gasoline to flow di-
rectly to the intake manifold as shown. In extreme cold
weather many motorists disconnect the fan belt in order
that the air draught through the radiator will not cool
the water to such a point that the engine will not run
efficiently. Other motorists provide some form of a lined
leather shield for the front of the radiator.

The Ford Lighting System. — The system of lighting
supplied with the Ford car includes 3 oil lamps, two. at
the dash and one at the rear. The headlights of models
made previous to 1915 are of the acetylene gas burning
type deriving the gas from action of water on calcium
carbide in a simple generator carried on the running

Ford Lighting System 159

boards. Pure calcium carbide will produce about 5.5
cubic feet of gas per pound of carbide decomposed, but
the commercial product seldom yields more than 4.5 cubic
• feet. Acetylene is a very brilliant illuminating gas and
gives a white light of about 240 candlepower if burned
at the rate of five cubic feet an hour. The strength of
illumination can be better judged by comparing it with
that produced by burning five cubic feet of good coa! gas

rtff. 47. — Acetylens Qas Idgbtins System Similar to That ITsed for Ford
Uglits on ISIO to 1S14 Hodftls. 1915 Ford Cars Hare Electric
Head Ughts.

in the same period of time which will result in only 16
candlepower. A special form of burner is used in the
Ford automobile headlights, which mixes a certain amount
of air with gas and the brilliant white light produced is
intensified and projected by means of a lens mirror
placed at the back part of the lamp. This lens serves to
collect and concentrate the rays of light from the flame
into a beam composed .of parallel rays which have great
illuminating power, and which will light up the road for
several hundred feet ahead of the car and permit higher

160 The Ford Model T Car

speeds with safety than would be possible with the feeble
glimmer of oil lamps.

The generator employed and its mode of action may
be easily understood. It consists of a water tank and
separate compartments for carbide and as soon as the
two come in contact the chemical begins to decompose and
acetylene gas is liberated while lime dust collects in the
bottom of the generator as a residue. The gas collects
in a reservoir and forces its way through a filter chamber
filled with wool or similar material which filters the gas.
The gas is also cooled before it reaches the lamps because
the gas outlet pipe and filter is surrounded with water.
When the shut-oflf valve is opened it permits the water
which is carried in the upper chamber to drop into the
carbide basket through a perforated tube. If the pressure
in the intermediate compartment is normal atmospheric
pressure, the water will drop freely onto the carbide until
considerable gas is liberated. The generator will continue
to supply gas as long as the supply of water and carbide
lasts. The jarring produced by car movement sifts the
lime to the bottom, and tends to kee|) the carbide crystals
clean so they may be readily acted upon by water. The
generator must be cleaned after every trip in which it
is used and all lime dust removed and carbide remaining
freed of dust. The best method of piping is shown at Fig.
47, the water separator being a fitting that must be fur-
nished by the owner as it is not supplied with the car.
This keeps water out of the pipe line and prevents lamps
from flickering.

Electric Lighting for Ford Cars. — Many owners of Ford
cars have fitted electric lights instead of the kerosene
lamps and gas lights regularly furnished up to this year.
A number of attachments have been offered designed to

162 The Ford Model T Car

fit the gas head lights; these consist of parabolic re-
flectors and electric bulbs intended to be run from the
same magneto that furnishes ignition current. Previous
to the year 1915, the Ford Motor Company did not recom-
mend the use of the magneto current for electric lighting
inasmuch as it was stated that this interfered with igni-
tion. The 1915 Ford cars, however, are equipped with
electric head lamps as a regular fitting, the current being
derived from the Ford magneto, which has been rede-
signed with a view to using larger magnets and thus pro-
ducing more electrical energy than is needed for ignition
purposes. As electrical lighting is general on all makes
of cars and has so many advantages, many Ford owners
have fitted up their own electric lighting systems by pro-
curing fittings available on the open market. The writer
desired to use electric side and tail lamps instead of the oil
lamps regularly furnished, but owing to the warning of the
manufacturer of the car, no attempt was made to utilize
the magneto current for this purpose. A 6-volt, 80-am-
pere hour storage battery was installed under the rear
seat to furnish current. This proved to be thoroughly
practical as it was only necessary to charge the battery
once a month. A number of fittings, which are illustrated
as they may be of value to the Ford owner who contem-
plates fitting electric lighting, are shown at Fig. 48. The
application of a simple fitting to convert the square oil
side light to an electric side light is shown at A. This
has an advantage inasmuch as the oil burner may be used
in event of failure of the source of current. The same
fitting may be applied to the tail lamp. At B, a very
compact side light is shown. The tail light is practically
the same design except that it is smaller and has a red
lens instead of the white glass in the door. If electric

o
QQ

■B

U)e8

4^
OB

•d

OQ
o

o
A
QQ

»4

163

164 The Ford Model T Car

current from storage battery is provided small fixtures
as shown at C may be used for illuminating the speed-
ometer dial while portable search lights such as shown at
E and D will assist in locating engine trouble and repair-
ing tires after dark. The trouble light shown at D has
a cigar lighter attached which would be found very con-
venient by the smoker. The combination of tail lamp
supporting bracket and number plate holder shown at F
is also very practical fitting.

A section through a typical high grade electric head
light is shown at G. This is supplied in cases where the
motorist does not wish to use a make-shift reflector to
convert the gas lamps. A 6-volt, 80-ampere battery will
furnish enough current to operate two electric side lights,
two moderate power head lights and a tail lamp for
periods ranging from two weeks to a month without re-
charging, the service rendered being of course dependent
upon the amount of night riding done. For those who
wish only to use the side lamps and tail lamps of the
electrical form, special low voltage bulbs may be ob-
tained that will burn very satisfactorily on dry cell bat-
tery current. These bulbs are not sufficiently powerful
for head lights, however, so some motorists fit electrical
head lights taking the current from the magneto alid de-
pend on the dry battery only for the side and tail lamps.
Twelve dry cells wired in series-multiple combination in
which three sets of four joined in series are Avired in mul-
tiple, will form a practical battery for use with the low
voltage bulbs. A sim])le wiring diagram showing the
method of coupling three lamj^s with the controlling switch
and battery wired in is shown at Fig. 49.

The usual method of \\^ring head lights is to run a
wire from the magneto terminal to a one point switch on

Tools and Supplies for Tire Repairs 165

the dash, from the switch to one side of the left head light
double contact bulb. The head light bulb is then joined
to its neighbor, the free terminal of which is grounded tO'
the frame side member. This means that the lamps are
wired in series, this being done to permit the use of six
or seven-volt lamps which are a standard, easily procured
size and at the same time insures against burning them out
due to excess voltage generated at high engine speeds. If
the head lights are connected to the storage battery they
should be wired in multiple instead of series, just as the
side lamps are in Fig. 49. Separate switches should be
provided for the head lights, side light, and tail lamp cir-
cuits, inasmuch as it is not necessary to use all lamps at
the same time. While the tail light must be kept burning
at all times, it can be used in connection with the side
lamps for city driving and these can be extinguished and
only the head lights used for cross country work.

Tools and Supplies for Pneumatic Tire Restoration. — ^It
has been previously stated that one of the chief disad-
vantages of pneumatic tires has been their liability of
failure by puncturing the outer casing and penetrating
the inner tube and thus providing a means for escape of
the compressed air in the inner tube. The life of a pneu-
matic tire is decidedly uncertain and will depend on many
factors outside of those of purely natural wear. There
have been cases where outer casings have given satisfac-
tory service for seven or eight thousand miles, but these
instances have been exceptions rather than the rule. It
is the opinion of most motorists who have had practical
experience that if an ordinary set of shoes will give a
service averaging four thousand miles that they are equal
to the demands made upon them and that they are satis-
factory. It may be stated that tires will last longer on

aalug KiliMH Oi

Tools and Supplies for Tire Repairs 167

light cars like the Ford than on heavy ones and the service
obtained from tires fitted to automobiles driven at low
and moderate speeds will be much greater than that ob-
tained from tires fitted to high speed vehicles. There is
also a personal element which must be taken into consid-
eration, and that is the way that the car is driven and
the care taken of the shoes and inner tubes. It is neces-
sary, therefore, in all cars using pneumatic tires to carry
a certain amount of equipment for handling and repairing
these on the road. A typical outfit is shown at Fig. 50,
this supplementing two spare outer casings, and two extra
inner tubes for replacement purposes. Included in the
repair outfit are a blow-out sleeve, a number of patches
and an acid-cure vulcanizing outfit for applying them.
Tire irons are provided to remove the casing from the
rim ; the jack is used to raise the wheel of the vehicle on
which the defective tire is installed from the ground and
make it possible to remove the tire completely from the
wheel. The air pump is needed to inflate the repaired tube
or the new member inserted to take its place. Talcum
powder is provided to sprinkle between the casing and
the tube to prevent chafing or heating, while the spare
valves and valve tool will be found useful in event of dam-
age to that important component of the inner tube. As
it is desirable to inflate the tires to a certain defimte pres-
sure, a small gauge which will show the amount of com-
pression in the tire is useful.

The outfit shown may be supplemented by other forms
of vulcanizing sets and by special tire irons to make for
easier removal of the outer casing. Tire irons vary in
design, and most makers of tires provide levers for
manipulating the casings, which differ to some extent.
A set of tire irons, such as would be needed with a clinc

168 The Ford Model T Car

tire equipment, could be selected from the forms shown
at Fig. 50. That shown near the gauge is utilized to loosen
the clincher bead from under the rim should it become
rusted in place. After the shoe has been loosened from the
rim flange, levers of the form shown at or below it would
be inserted under the bead in order to lift it over the rim.
Two or more of these levers are necessary, the long ones
being more easily operated than the short ones. The
length of the lever provided will depend entirely upon
the size of the tire to be removed. Motorists, as a rule,
should carry one of the releasing levers shown, two of the
short members dei)icted and one longer lever. The latter
may he a combination form, which can be used as a jack
handle as well as a tire iron, and then it is not necessary
to carry a jack handle in the equipment. The flattened
ends are generally employed for prying the bead from
the clincher rim, and when this has been done and suflS-
cient siiace exists between the bead and the rim to insert
the curved end of the large levers, considerable leverage is
obtained and the be^d may be lifted over the clincher rim
without undue exertion. The object of rounding the cor-
ners, and of making the working portions as broad as pos-
sible, is to reduce the liability of pinching the inner tube,
which would be present if the irons had sharp edges.

The tire repair material is sometimes carried in a spe-
cial case, as shown at top of Fig. 50, this consisting of all
parts necessary to make temporary repairs, to be consid-
ered in proper sequence. This outfit is sometimes sup-
plemented by other special tools. A knife is needed to
cut the rubber, trim patches, etc. The stitcher and roller
are useful in rolling the patch after it has been cemented
to the tire to insure adhesion of the patch firmly against
the damaged portion of the tube while the cement i3 dry-

Removing and Applying Tires

169

ing. Some motorists carry a small flame-heated vulcanizer
in order to effect more permanent repairs than would be
possible with the simple patching processes in which only
the adhesive powers of dry cement are available.

Casing

Rim

Bead Clear
of Rim

Fig. 51. — Showing Method of Releasing Clincher Casing from Bim.
A. — Inserting the Tire Iron. B. — ^Raising the Bead. C. — ^Working
the Clincher Bead Over the Edge of the Bim. D. — ^Method of Guid-
ing Bead Over the Bim.

Tire Manipulation Hints. — In removing or replacing
outer casings considerable care must be exercised not to
injure the shoe or pinch the inner tube. The first step
is to jack up the wheel from which the defective tire is
to be removed, thus relieving the wheel of the car weight.

170 The Ford Model T Car

The valve inside is then unscrewed in order to allow any
air that may remain in the tube to escape, and then the
lock nuts on the valve stem are removed so that this mem-
ber may be lifted to release the clincher beads from the
rim channels. If the tire is stiff or has not been removed
for some time, a special iron is utilized to loosen the edges
and the beads are pushed clear of the clincher rim.

When the casing has been loosened on one side, a flat
tool, as shown at Fig. 51, A, is inserted under the loose
bead to act as a pry or lever to work the edge of the casing
gradually over the rim. Very long levers are necessary
to handle new stiff tires, and unused casings are particu-
larly hard to move. The shorter irons may be employed
on shoes which have been used for some time and which
are more pliable than the new ones. Two of the levers
are generally used together, one being kept under the
loosened edge of the bead, while the other is used to force
the bead over the edge of the rim. When the outside edge
of the bead has been forced over the rim at all points the
inner tube is lifted from the rim and is pulled out of the
shoe. The start at removing is made at the point diamet-
rically opposite the valve stem. When this portion has
been pulled clear of the rim and out of the casing it is not
difficult to pull the rest of the tube out and finally lift the
valve stem out of the hole through which it passes in the
wheel felloe, and take the inner tube entirely off the wheel.
If the casing demands attention, or if a new shoe is to be
used, the inside bead is worked over the channel of the
clincher rim in just the same manner as was done with
the outside bead, and after a start has been made and a
portion of the inside bead forced over the rim there will
be no difficulty in slipping the entire shoe from the wheel.

Applying a tire is just the reverse to removing one.

Fig. 52. — ^Proper MetliodB of Handling Tire Irons In Bemovlng and
Sopladng Outer Casings on Cllnclier Blms at A and B. How
Inner Tnbe May Be Pinched If Tire Iron IB Car^essly Uanlpnlated
at C. Inner Tube May Be Pinched If Placed in Casing Witliont
Being FarUaUy Inflated as at D.

172 The Ford Model T Car

The first operation is to place the inner bead of the tire
in place in the center of the rim by forcing it over the out-
side flange. This is done gradually, and in order to force
the remaining portion of the shoe it may be necessary
to use long levers when the greater part of the casing has
been applied. The next step is to work the shoe gradually
toward the inner channel of the rim, then to insert the air
tube. The inner tube is replaced after it has been par-
tially inflated by putting the valve stem in first and then
inserting the rest of the tube, being careful not to pinch
it under the beads.

After the inner tube has been put in place, the outer
bead of the tire is worked over the edge of the rim chan-
nel. Care must be exercised to insure that the inner tube
will not be pinched by the sharp edges of the tire levers,
as at Fig 52, C. The object of partially inflating the inner
tube is to distend it so there are no loose or flabby por-
tions that are liable to catch under the tire bead when
this is being forced in place over the wheel rim, as at Fig.
52, D. The conventional method of inflating tires by using
a foot pump does not always insure that they will receive
adequate inflation, and when a pump is employed it is im-
j)erative that some form of gauge be provided that will
register the amount of pressure inside of the tire in order
that it will reach the figure recommended by the tire mak-
ers. Different methods of tire inflation have been devised
which eliminate the necessity of using manually operated
pumps. Obviously, a simple expedient would be to pro-
vide a small power-driven pump that could be actuated
by any convenient mechanical connection with the engine
or a spark plug pump. Another method is to use an air
bottle, which is a steel container in which air is stored
under great pressure. The air is compressed to such a

Tire Repair and Maintenance 173

point that a tank less than two feet long and six inches
in diameter will furnish sufficient air to inflate seven or
eight rear tires or twelve front ones. The tanks may be
exchanged at small cost, when exhausted, for new con-
tainers holding a fresh supply of air. In some tanks, gases
of various kinds under high pressure are used, and the
motorist may obtain these on the same basis as air bottles
are supplied.

All devices of this character are fitted with gauges to
indicate the amount of pressure in the tire, and to prevent
overinflation. If a tire is not properly inflated the shoe
will be liable to various kinds of road damage and will be
easily punctured, while if the pressure is too high the shoe
is liable to ' ' blow-out ' ' at any weak point in the structure.
A tire-pressure gauge is a very necessary article of equip-
ment in any car, and its proper use when blowing up tires
will insure the best possible results if the schedule recom-
mended by the tire manufacturers is adhered to. Ford
front tires should be inflated to 60 pounds, the rear ones^
to 70 pounds pressure. The rule is 20 pounds for every
inch of tire width.

Tire Repair and Maintenance. — The common causes of
tire failure that the motorist is apt to encounter are shown
at Fig. 53. The most common is natural wear of the tread
portion of the tire. The rubber compound in contact with
the road surface wears away in time, and the fabric layers
which constitute the breaker strips are exposed! The shoe
is weakened and any sharp object in the road is apt to
penetrate the weakened case and puncture the inner tube.
If a number of the layers of fabric comprising the body
of the shoe are cut this constitutes a weak place in the
casing and a blow-out will result, because the few layers of
fabric remaining do not have sufficient strength to res

The Ford Model T Car

\ZJ

Fig. 63. — Cross Section of Tjrplcal Cllncber Tire Showing DafacUvs
Points tbat Demand Attention Wben BSBtorlns Tlies to Propv
Condition.

the air pressure. A stone bruise is caused by the removal

of a portion of the rubber tread by a sharp stone, piece

of glass, etc., and is much more serious than a punctnre,

Repair of ''Blow Out'' Jn Casing 175

because it removes some of the tire, whereas in ordinary-
cases of puncture a sharp object merely penetrates the
casing. A sand blister is produced by sand or grit from
the road working into a space in the tire between the tread
and the fabric body through some neglected incision or
bruise. The side of the tread is often chafed by running
the tires against curbstones or by driving in a car track.
Bim cutting is generally caused by insuflScient inflation,
which permits the rim to cut into the tire and thus tends
to sever the bead from the side of the shoe.

The chief inner tube trouble is penetration of the wall
by some sharp object, or the folding over of part of the
tube walls when the tire was applied. The parts of the
check valve sometimes give trouble and the valve leaks.
In cases of valve trouble it is usually cheaper to replace
the valve inside than it is to attempt to fix it. Some of
the causes of valve leakage are hardening of the rubber
washer, bent stem, which prevents the valve from seating
properly, or a particle of dust or other foreign matter
which would act to keep the valve from closing the air
passage positively.

The most serious condition that a motorist will meet
with is a '* blow-out," and usually only temporary re-
pairs can be made on the road. The common methods of
restoring a defective outer casing are depicted at Fig.
54. In this, an inner sleeve, which is composed of a num-
ber of plies of fabric, is placed between the inner tube
and the broken portion of the outer casing to prevent
pinching of the inner tube by the jagged edges of the cut.
To strengthen the casing from the outside, an outer shoe
or gaiter made of leather is laced around the shoe. The
object of using both inside and outside reenforcing mem-
bers in combination is to not only strengthen the weak

176

The Ford Model T Car

outer casing but by providing an outer shoe dirt is kept
from working into the tire.

Punctured inner tubes may be temporarily repaired by
using a cemented surface patch. The first step necessary
is to clean the surface of the tube very thoroughly with

Break in Casing

Outer Sfi09

Inner Sieeve-

uter CoMitm

Inner Sleeve with Hooks

Tig. 54. — Showing the Application of Inner and Outer Casing Sloovw
as a Temporary Repair for Ruptured Outer Casings.

gasoline and then to rough up the surface of both patch
and that portion of the tube surrounding the hole with a
wire scratch brush or with sandpaper. After the surfaces
are properly cleaned and roughened the patch and the tube
are coated with suitable patching cement, which is allowed
to become thoroughly dry before the second coat is ap-
plied. The second coat is allowed to become ^Hacky,"
which expresses a condition where the cement is almost

■•I

Tire Repairs By Vulcanizing Process 177

dry and yet still possesses a certain degree of adhesive-
ness. This requires about ten minutes' time on an aver-
age. The patch is applied to the cemented portion of the
tube and the whole is clamped firmly together to secure
positive adhesion while the cementing medium is drying.
Patches should always be of sufficient size to cover the
damaged portion and at the same time have about three-
quarters of an inch or more of the patch at all sides of the
orifice.

Very satisfactory repairs to both inner and outer cas-
ings of a permanent nature can be made by using small
portable vulcanizers, which may be heated by either elec-
tricity, steam or by burning gasoline in them. When these
are used a special vulcanizing cement is necessary, and
uncured rubber stock must be used for patching or filling
openings caused by punctures or blow-outs. The patch of
raw material is applied to the cemented surface of tube or
casing and the vulcanizer heated to the proper tempera-
ture. The heat of the vulcanizer causes the rubber of the
patch to unite perfectly with the old material and forms
an intimate bond. In vulcanizing the most important pre-
caution is to maintain a proper temperature. Too great
a degree of heat will bum the rubber, while a proper cure
cannot be effected if the temperature is too low. The tem-
peratures recommended for vulcanizing vary from 250 to
325 degrees F. The lower degree of heat is used for work-
ing material that has been previously cured, while the
higher temperature is recommended for new rubber.

The rules to secure satisfactory operation from pneu-
matic tires may be easily summed up. In the first place,
it is imperative that the tires be inflated to the pressures
recoromended by the manufacturers. The tires should be
kept dean and free from oil or grease, because the oleagi-

178 The Ford Model T Car

nous substances used for lubrication very quickly attack
rubber compounds and cause crumbling and rapid deterio-
ration. Oil or grease should be wiped off as soon as \
noticed and the tire cleaned by application of gasoline. \
Any small cuts or openings in the tire that may permit
water to enter or sand to work between the fabric and the
tread will cause trouble in time and should be filled with.!
rubber com])ound as soon as noticed. One should be care-
ful in driving not to apply the brakes too suddenly, be-
cause this will lock the wheels and wear the tires flat in
si)ots very (luickly. Care should be taken not to drive in
car tracks, and when highways do not have the proper |
surface tlioy should be negotiated very carefully to avoid!
cutting the casings. ;j

Typical Special Tool Equipment. — The makers of all the ^}
popular cars, especially those that are produced in any . ;
quantity, furnish special tools for the use of their repair. i";
men or for those employed in the service stations of the .V-
agents. As an example of the special tools that it is poB-,i'«
sible to obtain the assortment used by repairmen of Ford '2
Model T cars is shown at Fig. 55. The device at A is Sr '
wheel i^uller designed to go on the hub in place of the hub^X
cap. The tools shown at B, C, D, F, G and D2 form put J
of the regular tool equipment. The box wrench at E is 5?
also furnished with each car, and is a hub cap wrench hav> %
ing one end formed to fit the slabbed portion of the front-^|
wheel bearing adjusting cone lock nut. ^'

A valve spring lifter is shown at H, while a valve seat. ^
reamer is shown at I. The valves are turned while grmd- i
ing by the special brace S, which can be used on all of the-^
valves except the one on the rear cylinder, which is imme- ?
diately under the dash board. To turn this valve the si)e-
cial wrench shown at L is provided. A special T handle

X >- N ^

If "t.

PC 1/)

r ■

180 The Ford Model T Car

socket wrench for handling %" nuts or bolt heads such as
used on the rear construction and various other points is
shown at J. AT handle screw driver for the set screws
which are employed in retaining the camshaft bearings is
shown at O. The puller shown at E is for removing the
cam gear from the camshaft, while that at Q is a trans-
mission clutch puller. The brace shown at K is a special
socket wrench for %" bolt nuts. The brace shown at T is
employed for removing the magnet retaining screws in
the magneto assembly. The tire irons at A-2, the tool roll
at B, the pump at D-1 and the spark plug socket wrench at
D-2 are all parts of the regular tool equipment furnished
with each car.

The simple fitting shown at W is a piston ring com-
pressor employed to compress the rings in the piston
grooves to facilitate easy assembly in the cylinder block.
A number of special socket wrenches are shown at X, T,
Z, A-1, C-1, C-2 and C-3. These are all intended for use
on the various fastenings used in holding the parts to-
gether. For example, that at X is a socket wrench for
the crank shaft main bearing bolt nuts. That at T is for
%" bolt heads or nuts. The wrench at Z is for removing
the cylinder head retaining bolts. The wrench for remov-
ing the pinion drive shaft housing retaining stud nuts is
shown at C-1, this being used for %" nuts. The rear axle
housing bolt nut wrench is shown at C-2, while the form
outlined at C-3' is similar to that shown at C-1, except that
it fits '^Vz2' nuts. The special end wrench at M is for the
flywheel retention cap screws, that at U is for removing
the large cam gear lock nut, while that at B-1 is a regular
open end wrench for %" nuts. The prices on these taols
are so low that it is cheaper to purchase from the factory
than to attempt to niake them.

182 The Ford Model T Car

A Typical Engine Stoppage Analyzed. — ^Before describ-
ing the points that may fail in the various auxiliary sys-
tems, it will be well to assume a typical case of engine
failure and show the process of locating the trouble in a
systematic manner by indicating the various steps which
are in logical order and which could reasonably be fol-
lowed. In any case of engine failure the ignition system,
motor compression and carburetion should be tested first.
If the ignition system is functioning properly one should
deteiinine the amount of compression in all cylinders, and
if this is satisfactory the carbureting group should be
tested. If the ignition system is working properly and
there is a decided resistance in the cylinders when the
starting handle is turned, proving that there is good com-
pression, one may suspect the carburetor.

It is possible that the inlet manifold may be loosely
held or cracked, that an exhaust valve is stuck on its seat
because of a broken or bent stem. Failure of the cam-
shaft drive because the teeth are stripped from the engine
shaft or cam-shaft gears; or because the key or other
fastening on either gear has failed, allowing that member
to turn independently of the shaft to which it normally
is attached, is very rare. The gasoline feed pipe may be
clogged or broken, the fuel supply may be depleted, or the
shut-off cock in the gasoline line may have jarred closed.
The gasoline filter screen or sediment bulb may be filled
with dirt or water, which prevents passage of the fuel. The
defects outlined above, except the failure of the gasoline
supply, are uncommon, and if the container is found to
contain fuel and the pipe line to be clear to the carburetor,
it is safe to assume that the vaporizing device is at fault.
If fuel continually runs out of the mixing chamber the car-
buretor is said to be flooded. This condition results from

Typical Engine Stop Analyzed 183

failure of the shut-off needle to seat properly or from a
gasoline soaked cork float. It is possible that not enough
gasoline is present in the float chamber. If the passage
controlled by the float needle valve is clogged or if the
float was badly out of adjustment, this contingency would
be probable. When the carburetor is examined, if the
gasoline level appears to be at the proper height, one
may suspect that a particle of lint, dust, fine scale or rust
from the gasoline tank has clogged the bore of the fuel
passage.

On cranking the motor slowly over by hand, if one
cylinder has poor compression while all others have good
compression the trouble may be due to a defective condi-
tion either inside or outside of that cylinder. The external
parts may be inspected more easily, so the following should
be looked for : a broken valve, a warped valve head, broken
valve springs, sticking or bent valve stems, dirt under
valve seat, leak at cylinder head packing or spark plug gas-
ket, cracked cylinder head (rarely occurs), leak through
cracked spark plug insulation, valve plunger stuck in the
guide, lack of clearance between valve-stem end and top
of plunger. The faulty compression may be due to de-
fects inside the motor. The piston head may be cracked
(rarely occurs), piston rings may have lost their elasticity
or have become gummed in the grooves of the piston or
the piston and cylinder walls may be badly scored by a
loose wrist pin or by defective lubrication. The Ford mo-
tor is a type with a separately cast head and it is possible
that the gasket or packing between the cylinder and com-
bustion chamber may leak, either admitting water to the
cylinder or allowing compression to escape. This may be
corrected by tightening all the retaining bolts firmly to
seat the head against the gasket.

184

The Ford Model T Car

Conditions That Oause Failure of lotion STatem. — ^If the
first test of the motor had showed that the compression
-w-ns as it should be and that there -was no serious mechan-
ical defects and there was plenty of gasoline at the car-
buretor, this would have demonstrated that the ignition
system was not functioning properly. If a battery is em-
l)lo}'('d as an auxiliary supply of current, the first step is

to take the spark ]ilugs out of the cylinders and teat the
system by turning over the engine by hand, with the switch
circuit closed. If there is no s|)ark in any of the pings,
this may be considered a positive indication that there ia
a broken main current lead from tlit; battery, a defective,
ground connection, a loose battery terminal, or a broken
cell connector. If none of these conditions are present, it

Testing Battery Strength 183

is safe to say that the battery is no longer capable of de-
livering current. If there is no spark at the plugs, but
the spark-coil vibrator functions properly, this shows that
the primary wiring is as it should be and that the fault

must be looked for in either the ■wires comprising the sec-
ondary circuit, or at the plugs. The spark plugs may be
short circuited by cracked insulation or carbon and oil
deposits around the electrodes. The secondary wires may
be broken or have defective insulation, which permits the
current to ground to some metal part of the frame or
motor. The battery strength should be tested with a volt

186 The Ford Model T Car

or ampere meter to determine if the voltage and amperage
is sufficient. Storage battery capacity is usually gauged
by measuring the voltage, while dry cells are judged by
their amperage. A storage battery should show over two
volts per cell or 6.5 volts in a three-cell group, while dry
batteries that indicate less than six amperes per cell are
not considered reliable or satisfactory for ignition service.
Look also at the magneto contact plunger to make sure it
is clean and not gummed up or held away from its seat
by a small shred from the brake lining. If there is no
vibration at the coil tremblers the trouble may be due to
weak current source, broken or loose magneto wire, broken
timer wires, or defective connections at the vibrator or
coiniuutator contact points. The electrodes of the spark
plug may be too far apart to permit a spark to overcome
the resistance of the compressed gas, even if a spark jumps
the air sjiace when the plug is laid on the cylinder. In
some cases the trouble has been due to the switch, which
did not contact properly. In others, the spring keeping
the timer case in place loosened and the timer case was not
making proper contact with engine. It should always be
in firm contact with the engine base to secure positive elec-
trical contact between timer roll carrier and segments in
timer case.

If the motor runs intermittently, i.e., starts and riins
only a few revolutions, aside from the conditions pre-
viously outlined, defective operation may be due to seizing
between parts because of insufficient oil or deficient cool-
ing, too much oil in the crank case, which fouls the cylin-
ders after the crank has revolved a few turns, and derange-
ments in the ignition or carburetion systems that may be
easily remedied. There are a number of defective condi-^
tions which may exist in the ignition group, that will result

How To Locate ''Shipping'' Cylinder 187

in ^'skipping" or irregular operation, and the following is
the logical order in which the various points should be in-
spected : the parts which demand inspection oftenest are
considered first ; weak source of current due to worn-out
dry cells or discharged storage batteries; weak magnets
in magneto; dirt or gummed oil in timer casing, broken
spring on timer roll carrier, or poor contact at magneto
curl'ent collecting plunger. A dirty or cracked insulator at
spark plug will cause short circuit, and can only be detected
by careful examination. The following points should also
be checked over when the plug is inspected: Excessive
space between electrodes, points too close together, loose
central electrodes, or loose point on plug body, soot or oil
particles between electrodes, or on the surface of the
insulator.

How To Locate "Skipping" Cylinder. — If irregular engine
action is due to poor ignition and the trouble seems local-
ized to some particular cylinder, it is very easy to locate
the member at fault by holding down the coil vibrators as
shown at Fig. 57. The engine is run with a late spark and
with the throttle about half open and three of the vibra-
tors are held down at a time, leaving the engine running
on one cylinder only. It may often be found that three of
the cylinders are functioning properly and that only one
is at fault, which in this case means that the trouble is
present either at the spark plug or to some condition in
that cylinder other than faulty ignition. The engine will
run oh one cylinder when three of the coil vibrators are
held down, the object being to discover the weak or faulty
cylinder by putting those that are running properly out
of action temporarily. When all three vibrators that be-
long to the cylinders that are working properly are held
down the engine will not run with the vibrator serving the

The Ford Model T Car

Tig. &9. — Showing Iifethoda of Adjusting Air Oapa In Sparic PIttgt.

cyliiidor that is at fault fn-c. Rome repairmen hold down
only two of the vibrators and lot tlie engine run on the
remaining one or two cylinders. This is in cases where

Spark Plug Repairs 189

the mixture adjustment may be faulty enough so that one
cylinder will not suffice to keep the engine in operation.

Spark Plug Faults. — -After the ** missing'' cylinder has
been located either by the method of holding down the
vibrators or by short circuiting each of the cylind^ars in
turn by using a screw driver as indicated at Fig. 59, A to
connect the insulated terminal of the spark plug to some
metal portion of the engine, the next step is to remove
the spark plug and examine it carefully for various faults.
On some cars using high tension magneto ignition and on
some Fords that have been fitted over in this way by their
owners it is not easy to detect irregular engine action, as
no vibrators are used that may be utilized as indicators of
correct engine action. In this case the simple tool shown
at Fig. 59, B may be used. This consists of two strips of
brass riveted together and fastened into a fiber or hard
rubber handle as shown. These make a very effective
short circuiting medium and entirely eliminate the danger
of shock present when a screw driver is used for this pur-
pose. If the plug is dirty the point should be cleaned with
an old toothbrush dipped in gasoline or with a special
spark plug brush made for the purpose as outlined at
Fig. 56, H.

If the plug is extremely dirty it should be taken apart,

which should be easily done by removing the porcelain

retaining bushing that fits the main steel shell and then

taking the porcelain out of the shell member. Care should

be taken not to drop any of the copper asbestos gaskets

~^ used on both sides of the porcelain shoulder. The carbon

deposits, which are usually of an oily nature, may be easily

n removed from the porcelain or shell interior with the small

le blade of a jack knife, but care should be taken not to

•e scratch the glazed surface of the porcelain, as this permits

190 The Ford Model T Car

the insulator to absorb oil. All parts of the plug should
be thoroughly washed with gasoline and wiped dry with
a clean rag. When reassembling the plugs care should be
taken that the bushing holding the porcelain in place is not
tightened too much, as this may crack the insulator. It is
also important that the distance between the spark points
should be no more than /^2", which is about the thickness
of a worn dime. Some plugs have a center terminal, as
sliOTVTi at Fig. 59, C. These are easily handled by pushing
the center rod over until it bears the proper relation to
the aperture in the plug base.

The standard form of plug used on Ford cars is shown
at Fig. 59, D. With this construction the air gap is main-
tained at the proper point by moving the center stem as
conditions demand. A cracked insulator must be replaced
with a new one, and if the bent electrode is found loose in
the plug shell this should be firmly retained in place by
jamming a portion of the metal surrounding it toward the
wire with a sharp prick punch. The method of using a
doubled over piece of fine emery cloth to brighten the plug
points to insure the easy passage of the ignition spark is
clearly shown at Fig. 59, E. The spark plug should be
tested after it is ass(nnbled by connecting it to the spark
plug wire and laying it on the cylinder in such a way that
only the steel shell is in contact with the metal parts of the
engine. The engine is then cranked over by hand with
the switch on the coil box in the battery position if these
members are provided and the plug watched to see if a
spark occurs between the points at regular intervals. If
the spark plugs foul up quickly the trouble is usually due
to too much lubricating oil in the engine, worn piston rings,
which allow the oil to reach the combustion chambers, the
use of poor quality oil or too rich fuel mixture.

Ignition System Faults 191

Faults in Other Ignition System Parts. — ^When testing a
dry battery, the terminals should be gone over carefully
to make sure that all terminal nuts are tight and that there
are no loose or broken connectors. The wiring at the coil,
timer, and switch should be inspected to see that all con-
nections are tight and that the insulation is not chafed or
cracked. Defective insulation will allow leakage of cur-
rent, while loose connections make for irregular operation.
In testing a storage battery care should be taken to remove
all the verdigris, or sulphate, from the terminals before
attaching the testing wires. The strength of the Ford
magneto can be determined by the Hoyt magnetometer, a
device specially made for this purpose. In the Ford sys-
tem a vibrator coil is employed, so the trembler platinum
contact points should be examined for pits, or carbonized
particles that would interfere with good contact. If defec-
tive, they should be thoroughly cleaned and the surfaces
of the platinum point on both vibrator spring and adjust-
ing screw should be filed smooth to insure positive con-
tact. The tension of the vibrator spring should not be too
light or too heavy, and the vibrator should work rapidly
enough to make a sharp, buzzing sound when contact is
established at the timer. The adjusting screw should be
tight in the vibrator bridge, and when proper spring ten-
sion is obtained the regulating screw should be locked
firmly to prevent movement, if an automatic lock is not
provided, as on Heinze coils.

If the vibrator operates satisfactorily, but there is a
brilliant spark between the vibrator points and a poor
spark at the spark plug, one may assume that the coil
condenser is punctured. Short circuits in the condenser
or internal wiring of induction coils or magnetos, which
are fortunately not common, can seldom be remedied ex-

192 The Ford Model T Car

cept at the factory where these devices were made. If an
engine stops suddenly and the defect is in the ignition
system, the trouble is usually never more serious than a
broken or loose wire. This may be easily located by in-
specting the wiring at the terminals. Irregular operation
or misfiring is harder to locate, because the trouble can
only be found after the many possible defective conditions
have been checked over, one by one.

Oommon Defects in Fuel Systems. — Defective carburetion
often causes misfiring or irregular operation. The de-
rangements of the comjionents of fuel system that are
common enough to warrant suspicion and the best meth-
ods for their location follows: First, disconnect the feed
pipe from the carburetor and see if the gasoline flows
freely from the tank when the shut-off v.alve is opened
again. If the stream coming out of the pipe is not the
full size of the orifice it is an indication that the pipe is
clogged with dirt or that there is an accumulation of rust,
scale, or lint in the strainer screen of the filter or that the
sediment bulb is filled with foreign matter. It is also pos-
sible that the fuel shut-off valve may be wholly or partly
closed. When the gasoline flows by gravity the liquid may
be air bound in the tank on account of a plugged vent hole
in filler cap.

If the gasoline flows from the pipe in a steady stream
the carburetor demands examination. There may be dirt
or water in the float chamber, which will constrict the pas-
sage between the float chamber and the spray opening, or
a particle of foreign matter may have entered and clogged
the fuel inlet. The float lever may bind on its guide pin,
the needle valve regulating the gasoline inlet opening in
bowl may stick to its seat. Any of the conditions men-
tioned would cut down the gasoline supply and the engine

'tiis

How To Adjust Carburetor 193

would not receive sufficient quantities of gas. The gasoline
adjusting needle may be loose and jar out of adjustment.
Air may leak in through the manifold, due to a porous
casting, or leaky joints due to poor gaskets or loose re-
taining stirrups and dilute the mixture. Water or sedi-
ment in the gasoline will cause misfiring because the fuel
feed varies when the water or dirt constricts the pipe bore.

It is possible that the carburetor may be out of adjust-
ment. If clouds of black smoke are emitted at the exhaust
pipe it is a positive indication that too much gasoline is
being supplied the mixture, and the supply should be cut
down by screwing down the needle valve and by making
sure that the fuel level is at the proper height in the float
bowl. If the mixture contains too much air there will be
a pronounced popping back in the carburetor. When a
^ carburetor is properly adjusted and the mixture delivered
to the cylinders burns properly, the exhaust gas will be
clean and free from the objectionable odor present when
gasoline is burned in excess. If the muffler cut-out has
been provided by the owner the character of combustion
may be judged by the color of the flame which issues from
it when the engine is running with an open throttle after
nightfall. If the flame is red, it indicates too much gaso-
line. If yellowish, it shows an excess of air, while a prop-
erly proportioned mixture will be evidenced by a blue
flame, such as given by a gas stove burner.

Defects in Oiling and Cooling Systems. — ^While troubles
existing in the ignition or carburetion groups are usually
denoted by imperfect operation of the motor, such as lost
power and misfiring, derangements of the lubrication or
cooling systems are usually evident by overheating, dimi-
nution in engine capacity, or noisy operation. Over-heat-
ing may be caused by poor carburetion as much as by

194 The Ford Model T Car

deficient cooling or insufficient oiling. When the oiling
group is not functioning as it should the friction between
the motor parts produces heat. If the cooling system is in
proper condition, as will be evidenced by the height of
the water in the radiator, and the carburetion group ap-
pears to be in good condition, the overheating is probably
caused by some defect in the oiling system.

The Ford oiling system is so simple that practically the
only condition that will cause defective oiling is lack of
oil in the engine case or the use of poor grade lubricant.
The use of dirty oil will also produce overheating and
may result in trouble with bearings or cylinder walls cat-
ting. Grooved cylinder walls permit the hot gases to blow
by the piston rings and overheating results. Sometimes
the internal oil conduit or pipe running from the back end
of the crank case to the front may be partially clogged
with gummed oil or wax particles from the oil. This pipe
should be cleaned out by a blast of compressed air at high
pressure from time to time. It can be reached from the
top of gear case when the cover casting is removed. The
oil collecting wells that direct the lubricant to the main
bearings may fill with dirt or other matter, such as
gummed oil, which prevents proper quantities from reach-
ing the bearings. This condition is apt to occur if the
crank case is not drained out and cleaned from time to time
as recommended.

Deposits in Radiator and Piping. — The form of radiator
most generally used at the present time has a number of
very narrow passages through which the water must pass
in going from the upper compartment, into which it is
discharged after leaving the motor cylinders to the lower
compartment, where it collects after being cooled and
from which it is drawn by the circulating pump. The

Removing Incrustation 195

water used in some localities for cooling contains much
matter, either in suspension or solution, which will form
scale or a powdery deposit in the radiator tubes. It does
not take much scale to seriously reduce the ratio of heat
conduction between the heated water inside of the tube
and the cooling air currents which are circulated about
their exterior. As Ford cylinders are of cast iron, a cer-
tain amount of rust will be present in the water jacket,
and this also may get into the radiator piping.

If an anti-freezing solution using some salt as a basis,
such as calcium chloride, is employed, after this has been
circulated through the radiator and piping for a time it
may deposit solid matter in the form of crystals. Anti-
freezing solutions that include glycerine may have a chemi-
cal action due to the acid sometimes found in the cheaper
commercial grades of glycerine employed for this purpose.
This chemical action results in the deterioration of the
water jacket walls, and also contributes to the rust deposit.

For cleaning out water spaces of a radiator a solution
of potash or caustic soda may be used. This will cut the
rust and some forms of scale, and will dissolve them or
loosen them sufficiently so the deposits may be thoroughly
flushed out with water or steam under pressure. The solu-
tion will work more rapidly if it is brought to the boiling
point before placing it in the radiator. The solution is
also valuable in removing rust from the water jacket in-
terior. The best action is obtained if the caustic soda solu-
tion has a strength of between 15 and 22 per cent.

In order to apply this method, the whole of the water
in the circulating system is drained off and measured.
Then a solution is made by dissolving 2^2, libs, of solid
caustic soda so that it makes one gallon of solution, enough
of the solution being made to fill the entire cooling system.

196 ^ The Ford Model T Car

Considerable heat is generated when the soda is dissolved,
and frequent stirring is necessary, unless the soda is hung
in an iron basket just under the surface of the liquid.
When the liquid has cooled it is introduced intq the cir-
culating system until the latter is entirely filled. The soda
is allowed to remain in the system all night and is run out
in the morning. It must be borne in mind that caustic
soda will corrode aluminum in other cars and must not
be used if the system should have an aluminum pump
housing. After running out the soda a hose pipe and
water supply should be connected to the system and a
good stream of water driven through at fair pressure for
some time. It will not harm Ford parts.

Incrustation is most commonly caused by carbonate of
lime, Avhicli is held in solution in some waters as a bicarbo-
nate ; therefore, Avhen the water is heated the carbonic acid
is driven off and the carbonate is precipitated in the form
of a muddy deposit, which hardens in the presence of heat
into a non-conducting scale in those portions of the water
jacket where the heat is greatest and which remains in the
form of a powdeiy deposit in the radiator tubes, where
the heat is not great enough to harden the sediment. Some-
times the deposit is sulphate of lime, this also being found ■
in the water available in some localities. The reason that
water contains so many impurities is because it is one of
the best known solvents. Pure water is never found 4n
nature and can only be obtained by a process of distilla-
tion. The purest natural water is rain, and if this is col-
lected before it touches the earth it contains only such
impurities as may be in the air.

Method of Pan Belt Adjustment. — If the motor heats up
when the engine is running and the car standing still, it
is necessary to inspisct the fan driving means to make'

Cooling System Troubles 197

sure that this is functioning properly and that the fan is
turning all the time the engine is running and at the proper
speed. Ford cooling fans are flat belt driven and are
mounted on a simple form of bracket that will permit of
maintaining the fan driving belt at the proper tension
to insure positive rotation of the fan blades.

The fan belt tension may be easily adjusted by loosen-
ing a lock nut on a cap screw which bears against the lever
carrying the fan hub and tightening down on the belt ten-
sion regulating screw until the belt is tight enough so that
a decided resistance will be felt due to fan belt friction
when the fan is turned by hand. Care should be taken not
to tighten the fan belt too much, however, as this will result
in rapid wear of the belt and cause it to stretch as well
as imposing some strain on the fan hub bearing. The ad-
justing screw in the fan bracket may be easily reached by
removing the small brass cap which covers the breather
pipe at the front end of the engine. If the water in the
radiator boils easily and the trouble is not due to heavy
work, it is usually because the fan belt is loose.

Among some of the troubles that will cause overheating
are : too much driving on low speed ; not enough lubricat-
ing oil; carbonized cylinders or combustion chambers;
spark retarded too far ; clogged muffler ; insufficient lift to
exhaust valves, poor carburetor adjustment, clogged ra-
diator tubes, fan not working properly on account of
broken or slipping belt, and leaky piston rings. In ex-
amining the cooling system, one should look for a leaky
radiator, jammed or broken radiator pipes, bad connec-
tions in the rubber hose used to join radiator and water
jacket, lack of water and sediment in radiator or water
jacket. The Ford Company does not advise the use of
nostrums such as com meal, bran or other substances put

198 The Ford Model T Car

into the radiator for the purpose of stopping leaks, as
these are bound to hinder proper circulation. The interior
walls of the rubber hose may decompose and particles of
rubber hang down, partially constricting the hose bore
and hindering the passage of water. As new hose connec-
tions are inexpensive and easily applied, defective mem-
bers should be replaced at once.

Adjusting Transmission. — ^If any diflSculty is experi-
enced in climbing hills on the high speed and the engine
seems to have adequate power it is because the high speed
clutch is slipping. If the engine races when the slow speed
pedal is pushed up as tight as it will go when climbing
steep hills it is because the slow speed band in the trans-
mission needs adjusting. Should the car show a tendency
to creep forAvard when the crank is turned for starting
the motor, this indicates that the clutch lever screw which
bears on the clutch lever cam has worn and requires an
extra turn down to hold the clutch in neutral position. This
screw and the cam on Avhich it works are clearly shown in
the lower portion of Fig. 60. As will be observed, the
screw passes through a boss on the end of a simple lever,-
the other end of which is joined to the clutch actuating
pedal by a simple rod and yoke connection. The lock nut
must be released before attempt is made to screw down
the clutch lever screw, and care must be taken not to screw
that down any more than absolutely necessary or the high
speed clutch will slip.

To make adjustments to the reverse or transmission
brake band, or to the high speed clutch, the plate on the
transmission cover must be removed, this exposing the in-
terior of the transmission, as shoAvn at Fig. 60. It will be
necessary to remove the floor boards of the car to get at
this portion of the power plant. In order to simplify the

Fig. 60. — HeUiOd of Adjnatins Transmission Brake Band.

200 The Ford Model T Car

point involved, the method of adjusting a high speed clutch
is shown at Fig, 61, in -whieh the top half of the transmifl-
sion ease has been entirely removed. It will he noticed
that there are three clutch fingers spaced around the front
end of the transmission drum. These have set screws,

pig. 61.— How to Tighten Slipping High Speed Olutch.

througli which the pressure of the spring is translated to
push memhers bearing against the clutch disc assembly.
These set screws are prevented from turning by split pin
locks. If the high speed clutch is slipping, the split pin
on the clutch finger that locks the set screw should he re-
moved and the set screw given one-half or one complete
turn to the right with a screw driver. Each of the other

Adjusting Transmission Bands 201

set screws should be turned exactly the same amount, and
care should be taken to replace the locking split pin.

The low speed band may be tightened without remov-
ing the transmission cover plate, as an adjusting screw is
provided outside of the transmission case and on the right
hand side. If the slow speed band does not hold positively
the lock nut on this adjusting screw may be loosened and
the screw turned toward the right until appreciable re-
sistance is felt when the clutch pedal is pushed way for-
ward. This adjusting screw is shown in the space between
the transmission case and the exhaust pipe in Fig. 60.
The foot brake and reverse bands cannot be adjusted with-
out removing the transmission case cover plate, as shown
at Fig. 60. Adjusting nuts will be found that may be
readily turned with an S wrench, as indicated, until the
proper degree of band tension has been obtained by bring-
ing the ends closer together. Care should be taken not to
tighten the bands too much, as they may drag on the trans-
mission drum assembly when the car is in the high speed,
act as a brake and tend to overheat the motor. The foot
brake should be adjusted tightly enough, however, so that
medium pressure on the foot pedal will stop the car im-
mediately or slide the rear wheels in case of emergency.
The reverse band should be tightened in the same way
as the brake band is. If the friction linings of the bands
are worn to such an extent that adjusting the brake does
not seem to improve matters, they should be removed and
relined with new friction material so they will engage
smoothly without causing a jerky movement of the car, as
is unavoidable with slipping bands. These linings are in-
expensive and with ordinary good judgment a reverse and
slow speed band should last at least 10,000 miles and the
foot brake lining over 5,000 miles. Instructions for re-

202

The Ford Model T Car

iiio\-iiig the bi'ake bands are given in the next chapter, the
jturpose of this paragraph being merely to explain the ad-
justments possible on the road.

Adjusting Loose Front Wheels. — At regular intervals
while the car is in service it is important to examine the

-Testus for Front Wlieel Looseness.

front wheels to make sure that these are retained prop-
erly by the front hub ball bearings. The method of test-
ing the wheel for looseness is clearly shown at Fig. 62.
The front axle is raised from the ground by jacks and the
wheel is grasped at top and bottom by the operator, who

Adjusting Loose Front Wheels 203

attempts to push the top of the wheel in and pull the bot-
tom out, or the reverse of th!s operation. If the spindle is
tight in the front axle yoke and there is considerable
looseness in the ■wheel hub, the bub cap should .be removed
and the bearings carefully examined. The cone should be

removed from the spindle by pulling out the split pin that
locks the castle nut, remove that member, as well as un-
screwing the cone. After the cone is removed from the
threaded end of the spindle the wheel may be readily with-
drawn. The cones on both inner and outer parts of the
spindle should be carefully examined to make sure that

204 The Ford Model T Car

they are not pitted or scored, and the balls and races in
the wheels should also be examined for defects. If these
parts are found in proper condition the proper wheel ad-
justment may be secured after the wheel is replaced by
tightening on the wheel adjusting cone up to the point
where the wheel will turn freely and have no appreciable
end play. After the proper adjustment of the cone has
been secured, the lock nut and split pin should be replaced
The hub cap should be filled with grease and replaced on
the wheel hub. The interior construction of the Ford
front wheel may be clearly understood by referring back
to Fig. 32, which shows a sectional view of the Ford wheel
hub and tall bearings in place.

What To Do When Bear Brakes Do Not Hold. — ^After the
car has been in use for a time trouble may be experienced
in holding it on a grade by locking the emergency brake
hand lever. This is because the rear brake shoes have
worn sufficiently so that they do not grip the brake drmn
interior in a positive manner. In some cases this wear
may be taken up by shortening the rods running from the
hand lever cross shaft to the brake cam levers. This may
be done by the adjustment provided in threaded rod ends.

The method of testing the rear wheel brake is shown
at Fig. 64. Two jacks are utilized to raise the rear axle
to have both wheels clear of the ground. The hand brake
lever is then applied and endeavor is made to move the
wheel by grasping opposite spokes as shown, pushing
down on one and pulling up on the other. If the wheel can
be moved it is a sign that the brake shoes do not hold.
It is possible to compensate for some wear of the brake
shoes by shortening the rods, but it is important when this
is done to have these of the same length in order that one
brake will not take hold quicker than the other.

Removing Rear Wheel 205

To examine the brakes it is necessary to remove the
wheel, which is done by taking off the retention or clamp-
ing nut from the end of the axle and then applying a spe-
cial wheel puller in place of the hub cap, as shown at Fig.
65, This wheel puller consists of a casting threaded to

fit the wheel hub at its lower end and carrying a set screw
at the closed end. After the wheel puller body is properly
screwed onto the hub and a clamp screw tightened to make
sure that the puller body will not come off and strip the
threads, the wheel may be forced off of the taper by screw-
ing in on the set screw with a large monkey wrench fur-
nished with the Ford tool outfit, at the same time keeping

206

The Ford Model T Car

tlie -wheel puller body from turning with the hnb cap
wrench. If any difficulty is experienced in removing tiie
wheel after a certain amount of tension is obtained by
scrcwiiij!: in tlio set screw, a few sharp blows with a wooden

^^^^^mm ^^^^H^BJ

hi^^^^^b^^^H

HLn^H

^%-

CW«/'SCfff^

inallet or lead hammer on the head of the set screw and
ai)plied in the direction of the axle will loosen the wheeL
After the wheel is removed the brake shoes may be
readily examined as they are exposed, as shown at Fig. 66.
It sometimes happens that the slipping is caused by oil
deposits rather than wear. In this ease the slipping is

Replacing Worn Brake Shoes 207

easily remedied by cleaning out the interior of the brake
drum and the faces of the brake shoes thoroughly with
gasoline. If the shoes show aigns of wear, which can be
ascertained by noting if some' portions are worn thinner
than others, new brake shoes should be obtained and in-

stalled in place of the worn members. All that holds the
brake shoe assembly is one retention bolt carried by the
l>lato at the end of the axle. When this bolt is removed
the brake shoe assembly can be pulled away from the axle
and the expander cam. It is much cheaper to replace worn
shoes with new ones, which are inexpensive, than to at-

208 The Ford Model T Car

tempt to get further service from the worn brake shoes
by building upon the faces, which are in contact with the
expander cam, as sometimes advised, or by attempting to
apply a facing of sheet metal to the brake shoes. When
new cast iron shoes are installed the wheel should be
pushed on the axle taper and turned around with the hand
brake lever in neutral position to make sure that there
are no rough spots that will bear against the brake drums
and cause friction, make a squeaking sound, and produce
heating of the brakes when the car is running forward
on the high speed. If any rough spots are found they
should be smoothed off with a file. When reassembling the
wheel care should be taken that the key used to drive the
wheel is in place and that the hub is bedded tightly on the
taper by the retaining nut, wliich must be screwed on
tightly and locked with a split pin to prevent it backing oflf.
If the brake shoes have been replaced after the actuating
rods have been shortened several times it should be borne
in mind that these rods must be lengthened again to normal
length when new brake shoes are fitted.

CHAPTER V

OVERHAULING AND REPATRING MECHANISM

Faults in Power Plant and Symptoms — ^Value of System in Overhauling
— How to Take Down Motor — Carbon Deposits and Their Removal —
How to Repair Cracked Water Jacket — Reseating and Trueing Valves
— Method of Valve Grinding — ^Inspection of Piston Rings — Piston
Ring Manipulation — Fitting Piston Rings — ^Wrist Pin Wear — ^Inspec-
tion and Refitting of Engine Bearings — ^Knocking Indicates Loose
Bearings — Adjusting Main Bearings — Scraping B&arings to Fit —
Rebabbitting Connecting Rod — ^Testing Bearing Parallelism — Camshafts
and Timing Gears — How to Time Valves in Ford Engines — Repairing
Ford Magneto — Packings and Gaskets for Ford Engines — Precautions
in Reassembling Parts — How to Take Down Transmission — Relining
Brake Bands — ^Rear Axle Troubles and Remedies — Care of Springs —
Steering Gear Repairs — ^Miscellaneous Chassis Parts.

After any automobile has been in use for a time, even
if it has always been driven very carefully and oiled
regularly according to the makers' instructions a certain
amount of depreciation will exist in the mechanism and
the car can only be put in good condition again by a
thorough overhauling process. This is work for the
skilled mechanic or owner with mechanical inclinations and
a knowledge of the use of tools rather than the average
owner or driver. The writer will endeavor to give suffi-
ciently clear instructions however, so that the Ford owner
who knows how to handle common tools and who has a
general knowledge of common mechanical processes will
be able to make many of the repairs mentioned in this
chapter. To further facilitate an understanding of the
descriptive matter photographs have been taken of numer-

209

210 The Ford Model T Car

OTIS parts of the Ford cliassis mechanism in various stages
of assembly and careful study of these will give even the
non-mechanical owner some information that may be of
value.

When a car needs overhauling it gives notice that
this attention is needed by readily recognized symptoms.
For example, the engine will lack its customary power and
speed and hills that could formerly be negotiated on the
high gear can be climbed only by the use of the low
speed ratio. The engine will not accelerate properly nor
run regularly and it will be noisy in action. The gears
will grind all the time the machine is in use and the many
minor chassis parts that have worn will rattle whenever
the car is operated on anything but the best of highways.
The brake bands in the transmission will have reached
the limit of their adjustment, the brakes in the rear wheels
will no longer hold positively when the hand lever is
brought completely back in its travel. The car will not
be as responsive to steering and considerable lost motion
will be evidenced at the steering wheel which must be
turned an appreciable amount in order to start to move
the wheels. It will be apparent that while the car is still
in an operative condition that it is not working eflSciently.
It is not desirable to run it when in need of mechanical re-
pairs because the faulty parts are wearing more rapidly
after initial depreciation sets in. The first point to
consider will be the restoration of the mechanism of the
power plant, after which the repair of the transmission
and chassis parts will be discussed.

Faults in Power Plant and Symptoms. — ^There are a
number of unmistakable symptoms that indicate deprecia-
tion of power plant components. The most common of
these is lost power, then comes noisy operation. If an en-

Symptoms of Power Plant Faults 211

gine loses power it is not always a sign that it is in need of
a complete overhauling, as the trouble may be due to local
causes which can be readily remedied without taking the
engine out of the frame. If the lost power is accompanied
by noisy action it is safe to consider that the trouble
is due to wear of the motor parts. If an engine is cranked
over by hand and the compression is poor, one may assume
that either the valves need grinding or that the piston
rings are worn or the cylinder walls scored. Back firing
in the carburetor or inlet pipe, if it is not due to lean mix-
ture, would be caused by leaky valves, the inlet valve not
closing properly, defective inlet valve springs, or incorrect
valve timing. If the engine has no power and the crank
case gets hot, this is a sure indication of burned gas leak-
age past the piston rings which have become worn or
broken. Noisy action in the engine, if not due to carbon
deposits or insufficient lubrication would be the result of
worn pistons and cylinder walls, worn wrist pin bushings
in the piston bosses, loose connecting rod bearings at the
crank shaft, loose main bearings, flywheel loose on crank
shaft, camshaft driving gear loose on its retaining key, too
much space between valve operating plungers and valve
stem, or loose camshaft bearings. If the loss of power is
accompanied by overheating, and the cooling and lubri-
cating systems are functioning properly, trouble is prob-
ably due to insufficient lift of the exhaust valves or the
muffier may be clogged with carbon deposits, these pre-
venting a free exhaust. The best way to overhaul the en-
gine is to take it out of the frame and place it on a bench
where it can be reached handily and the parts inspected
more easily. Before describing the method of taking
down the Ford motor, it may be well to consider the sub-
ject of systematic procedure in overhauling, as this is a

212

The Ford Model T Car

point that is often neglected by the professional repair-
men as well as the amateur mechanic.

Bystem in Overhaiiling. — Not a few motor car owners
are backward in overhauling the motor, having in mind
eoiitiuually the fear that it will be a difficult matter to

get the parts together again properly. While it is a com-
paratively simple procedure to remove parts it is quite
the opposite in assembling so that the whole will be as it
was originally. If a system is followed throughout there
will be little if any trouble in resetting the motor parts
or in fact any parts and for the benefit of the inexperienced
owner a few hints on the subject that have appeared in

System in Overhauling 213

Motor Age are given here. Before anything is done to the
motor the workbench should be put in shape. A number
of boxes of varying sizes should be placed along the back
of the bench as shown in Fig. 67. Each box is designed
to receive the small parts of some unit such as the en-
gine cylinder parts, valve system, etc., and each box should
be properly marked with the name of the parts it is to
contain. In front of each box a spindle file should be
placed. These files are to be used for securing data sheets
upon which are written notations concerning the various
adjustments. Suppose diflSculty should arise in removing
a part, the first question to enter one 's mind is ^ ^ will it not
be more diflScult to return it to position ? ' ' Such a condi-
tion calls for a notation on a slip of paper and the exact
location of all the parts drawn if necessary. In other
words the files are used for memory so that the operator
will know just how every part in each' box was removed
and the position it occupied with reference to some other
object.

Adjustments often are required to be altered so that
memory slips again are valuable in that the original
adjustment can be jotted down. Aside from the small
boxes on top of the bench a large box should be placed
underneath. This is to care for large parts such as intake
and exhaust manifolds, connecting rods, the fan, the car-
buretor and other parts of the assembly. In other words,
the large box receives parts of which there is no doubt as
to location. System in removing parts will eventually lead
to a saving of time when assembly is necessary. For
example when the valve system is removed, the valves, the
springs, spring seats and the holding pins should be kept
together as shown in illustration Fig. 67, B. In removing
bolts, the lock washer, the nut and every part belonging to

How to Take Down Motor 215

the bolt should be kept together as at Fig. 67, C. Slip
the washer over the bolt and screw the nut in place and
then throw the whole into the proper box. When the wrist
pins are removed the clamp screw for holding the pin in
place should be left in the hole in the connecting rod boss.
When the manifolds are removed, instead of throwing the
holding nuts into one box and the manifold in another,
screw the nuts back onto the studs in the cylinder. The
object of all this immediate replacement is to keep the
parts as near to their proper places as possible so that
when assembly begins the operator will not be in doubt
as to where to look for a certain rod bolt or other part.

How To Take Down Motor. — The first step in removing
the Ford engine from the frame is to drain the water from
the radiator by opening the petcock at the bottom and
while the water is draining out to disconnect the spark
plug wires at the top of the motor. After the water is
drained out the water connections are unfastened from the
top of the motor and the side of the water jacket leaving
the hose and water pipes attached to the radiator as
clearly shown in Fig. 68. The next step is to disconnect
the radiator brace rod which holds it to the dash by un-
screwing it out of the lug at the top of the radiator. In
order to unscrew this rod it will be necessary to loosen
the check nut on the end of the rod that bears against
the dash. The two nuts that fasten the radiator to the
frame are removed and the radiator may be taken off and
placed to one side of the way, care being taken to place it
in a position where it will not be injured by tools or other
parts falling on the cooling tubes.

Next disconnect the dash at the two supporting
brackets which rest on the frame and detach the steering
post guide bracket carried at the left hand side of the

216 The Ford Model T Car

frame. The timer case or cover is loosened by releasing
the retaining clamp spring as shown In illustration and
the circular loom containing the four timer wires running
to the coil is released from the small, clamp that holds it to
the frame member in some cases. This makes it possible
to remove the steering post, dash, and all the wiring as one
assembly. Before taking off the steering post and dash
assembly it is necessary to disconnect the carburetor con-
trol, mixture adjustment and timer cover advance rods.
Then the two bolts of the cap holding the ball at the apex
of the triangular front radius rod member are unscrewed
from the socket underneath the crank case. The next
step is to free the rear of the engine from the rear axle
unit, which is done by removing four bolts at the universal
joint ball housing. The next step is to turn off the gaso-
line at the tank, disconnect the fuel supply pipe from the
carburetor, and remove the pressed steel pans joining
the cylinder casting to the frame on each side. The ex-
haust manifold is uncoupled from the exhaust pipe by
unscrewing the large brass packing nut. Next release
the cap of the trunnion bearing which supports the frapt
end of the crank case on the front frame cross membflf
which is done by unscrewing the two cap screws that hol^
the cap in place. The crank case supporting arms are at-
tached to the frame side members by two bolts in each
arm. These bolts should be removed which breaks the
last connection holding the motor to the frame.

A stout rope is passed through the opening between the
two middle cylinders and is tied with some form of posi-
tive holding but quick releasing knot. A piece of 2" x 4"
studding or a substantial iron pipe about 10 feet long is
passed through the rope. The engine may be lifted out
of the frame by three men, one at each end of the beam or

How to Take Down Motor 217

pipe while the third man takes hold orthe starting crank
handle to steady the power plant while it is being lifted.
If a chain falls or portable crane is available one man may
easily handle the power plant.

After the engine is removed the first step in taking it
down is to release the fifteen cap screws which hold the

Tig. 69. — Sliowlng Metliod of Bemovlng Copper Aabeatoa Gasket Used
Between Cylioder Head and Oyllnder Block Casting of the Ford
Engine.

cylinder head in place and take the head casting off. Next
the bottom plate on the crank case is removed and all the
connecting rods loosened up which permits of pushing the
pistons out through the top of the cylinder if desired.
The cooling fan and the fan belt are removed and placed
with the radiator where they will be out of the way. At

218 The Ford Model T Car

Fig. 68 the dash assembly is just loose enough to be raised
from the frame when necessary and one of the workmen
is loosening the cylinder head retention bolts before the
engine is lifted out of the frame on account of the superior
purchase or grip afforded when the engine is in place.
The workman at the right is loosening the fan bracket
adjusting bolt in order to take off the fan.

After the cylinder head is removed the next operation
is to carefully take off the gasket which will be found on
top of tlie cylinder casting. This is done by prying it
away from the cylinder block gradually with a screw
driver or other similar implement. The next step is to
remove the inlet and exhaust manifolds which is done "by
unloosening tlio stirrups or clamps holding these in place
as shown at Fig. 70. This exi)oses the valve chamber
covers which may be removed as outlined at Fig. 71. The
method of taking the i)iston out through the top of the cyl-
inder head after the connecting rod cap has been removed
from the crank shaft is clearly shown at Fig. 72. The
top half of the transmission case is then lifted off, which
can only be done after the brake band adjustinents have
been loosened up and a number of retention bolts removed.
The final operation is to take off the pressed steel lower
crank case member w^hicli also forms the lower portion of
the transmission case compartment. The appearance of
the bottom of the engine after this is done is clearly shown
at Fig. 73.

It is important to keep all parts that come from any
special member together and mark them so that they
may be readily identified. ]\Iany experienced repairmen
have the habit of throwing all parts in a common box and
then picking them out as needed. While the expert has
no difficulty in distinguishing the pieces much time is lost

Carbon Deposits and Removal 219

in looking for the various bolts and nuts, to say the least, ,
while if the novice follows this practice he will be hope-
lessly confused and will have difficulty in identifying the
various pieces. If the pistons and connecting rods are not
already marked they should be plainly stamped with steel

Fig. 70.— Metbod of Removliig Inlet and Exhauat Manifold.

numbers or letters or with a series of prick punch marks
to make sure that they will be replaced in the same cylinder
from which they were removed.

Carbon Deposits and Their RemoTal. — Mention has been
previously made that carbon deposits in the combustion
chamber are not desirable because they are apt to produce
overheating and noisy operation and result in diminution
of power. The knock produced by carbon is a clear hollow

220

The Ford Model T Car

sound, generally evidenced when climbing grades on the
liigh speed, especially after the engine has become heated.
C'arbon deposits are also indicated by a sharp kno<i
noticed whenever the engine is speeded up by opening the
throttle. The knock produced by having the spark too

far advanced is duller than that which is caused by carbon.
A loose connecting rod knock sounds like the tapping of
steel with a small liamnior and is most easily distinguished
when a car is allowed to coast down grade or upon sud-
denly slowing up the car from speeds of 25 to 30 miles
an hour by closing the throttle. Looseness in the crank
shaft main bearings produces a knock which can Ue best

Defining Carbon Knock 221

distinguished when the car is going up hill or under road
conditions where the engine is working hard. The knock-
ing sound produced by a loose piston is heard when the
throttle is suddenly opened and is ahnost exactly the same
as a carbon knock.

It is not necessary to take the engine entirely out of

Pig. 72. — How Ford piston May Ba WitUdrawa Tluongli Top of Motor.

the frame only to remove carbon or grind valves, though
if these two processes are to be done at the same time the
motor is overhauled it will be just as well to do all that is
necessary to the engine after it has been taken out of the
frame. If one desires merely to remove carbon, the first
step is to drain the water out of the radiator and to dis-
connect the water connection holts at the cylinder head.

222 The Ford Model T Car

The wires should be disconnected from the spark plugs in
the cylinder head and these should be removed in order
that they may he cleaned and placed out of harm's way.
If the spark plugs are left in the cylinder and a wrendi is
applied to a cylinder head bolt and slips off, one is very
likely to break the insulation of the spark plug whidi is of
porcelain, a very brittle material. It is not necessary to
remove the radiator when the cylinder head is taken off

for scraping carbon from the piston tops or grinding
valves.

After the cylinder head has been removed it should
be inverted on the work bench and the spark plug holes
plugged up by screwing in the plugs. Tlie combustion
chambers are then filled with kerosene which is allowed to
soak in to soften the carbon deposits while those on the
piston top are scraped off with a putty knife, as shown at
Fig. 74. Care should be taken to prevent the particles of

Removing Carbon Deposits 223

carbon from getting into the cylinders, bolt holes or water
jacket openings. It is evident that the gasket must be
removed from the cylinder block as shown at Fig, 69 be-
fore the carbon is scraped away. If the carbon removal
process is to be followed by valve grinding it will be well

Tig. 74.— Method c

to take off the inlet and exhaust manifolds as shown at
Fig. 70 and the valve chamber cover plates as ontlined at
Fig. 71. Care should be taken in replacing the cylinder
head gaskets to have the pistons in the cylinders No. 1 and
:So. 4 at top center, using these as guide members to locate
the gasket in position and to locate the eyhnder head in
place.

224 The Ford Model T Car

Be sure to draw the cylinder head retaining bolts down
evenly, turning down each one only a few turns at a time.
Do not tighten the bolts at one end before the other, but
all should be given the final turn to bed them down at
practically the same time. The best way is to turn those
in the center of the casting down so they bed loosely first,
then to tighten one at the front and one at the rear. After
this all of the bolts may be screwed down tightly. After
the cylinder head is replaced the engine crank shaft should
be turned over with the starting handle so as to be sure
that the gasket does not project over the cylinder bore,
which w^ould riiean that the piston would hit it when it came
to the top of the stroke. Before replacing the cylinder
head the combustion chamber should be thoroughly cleaned
out and all carbon removed by scraping. If the kerosene
has been used as recommended, in many cases the carbon
deposits may be softened sufficiently so they may be wiped
out with a rag.

How to Repair Cracked Water Jacket. — The water
jacket of the Ford engine cylinder will sometimes become
cracked due to freezing of the cooling water or perhaps
as a result of a sand 'or blow hole which opens up from
vibration after the cylinder has been used awhile At the
present time the usual practice in repairing cylinders is
to fill the depression or crack with iron by the autogenous
welding process, although various iron cements may be
used for that purpose if the fracture is not serious. A
mechanical repair is always possible, i.e., a metal patch
can be applied to cover the crack and held in place against
a gasket interposed between the plate and the cylinder
jacket by small machine screws tapped into the iron.

If the crack is of some length it may be repaired by
the following method : On the line of the fracture, drill

Repairing Cracked Water Jacket 225

and tap for a %" threaded copper rod. This rod is
screwed in firmly to a depth about equal to the thickness
of the metal of the water jacket. Cut off the copper rod
with a hacksaw, allowing if to project about ^2"; then
drill succeeding holes, each hole being drilled partly into
the previously inserted copper plug, so that when all of
the plugs are placed in the cylinder casting, they form
a continuous band of copper along the line of the fracture.
The copper plugs should be peened down and trimmed off
flush. The only possible chance for leakage, after having
repaired the crack in this manner, is for the water to
follow the joint between the metal of the jacket and the
<?opper plugs, but as the copper rods are threaded into
the casting, it is not likely to occur. Should leakage take
place, a little extra peening will suflSce to prevent it.

Still another method involves fusing copper filings or
granulated brass spelter into the crack. This has the ad-
vantage of not requiring the removal of the part to be re-
paired. Drill and tap a small hole at each end of the crack
to prevent further extension of the weakness, and screw in
an iron stud. Next clean the outside and inside of the frac-
ture very thoroughly, using a scraper and gasoline. File up
some soft copper or brass spelter, mix with borax and fill
the crack, heaping the filings over it. Then take a power-
ful blow lamp or a torch and direct the flame on the copper.
By this method a fair amount of metal can be worked into
the opening. After cooling, the studs are cut off flush and
the copper filed smooth. It is said that the repair will en-
dure indefinitely.

In many cases where the crack is not serious it may be
closed by making a rust joint. The first step is to drill a
very small hole at each end of the crack to prevent it from
spreading and to drive in or screw in a metal plug in each

226 The Ford Model T Car

hole. The crack is then filled up with a paste made of 66%
iron filings or iron dust and 33% sal ammoniac in the pul-
verized form, with just enough water to make the mixture
of proper consistency to be pressed into the crack easily.
The action of the sal ammoniac is to rapidly oxidize the
fine iron filings, producing rust which joins the various
iron particles together and effectively seals the opening
when it has properly hardened. As a number of prepared
cements for use with cast iron may be purchased at low
cost it is often cheaper to buy the cement than to attempt
to make it.

Another method sometimes employed is to clean out
the interior of the water jacket thoroughly and put in a
solution of sulphate of copper or bluestone, allowing this
to leak through the crack, if it will. Care is taken to re-
move any traces of grease that may remain in the crack;
this may be washed out by a boiling hot solution of potash
or caustic soda. As the copper sulphate solution leaks out,
it deposits a thin copper film, and if the crack is such that
it permits only a slow leak, the defective point will be
sealed overnight with a deposit of pure copper.

Reseating and Truing Valves. — Much has been said rela-
tive to valve grinding and despite the mass of information
given in the trade prints it is rather amusing to watch
the average repair man or the motorist who prides him-
self on maintaining his own car performing this essential
operation. The common mistakes are attempting to seat
a badly grooved or pitted valve on an equally bad seatf
which is an almost hopeless job, and of using coarse emery
and bearing down with all one's weight on the grinding
tool with the hope of quickly wearing away the ron^
surfaces. The use of improper abrasive material is *
fertile cause of failure to obtain a satisfactory seating.

Reseating and Truing Valves 227

Valve grinding is not a difficult operation if certain pre-
cautions are taken before undertaking the work. Tlie most
important of these is to ascertain if the valve head or seat
is badly scored or pitted. If such is found to be the case
no ordinary amount of grinding will serve to restore the
surfaces. In this event the best thing to do is to re-
move the valve from its seating and to smooth down both

the valve head and the seat in the cylinder before attempt
is made to fit tliem together by grinding. Another im-
portant precaution is to make sure that the valve stem is
straight, and that the head is not warped out of shape.

A number of simple tools are available at the present
time for truing valve seats, one of these being outlined in
use at Fig. 77. It is a simple reamer having cutters con-
fonning to the valve seat angle and a T-handle by which
it may be turned.

Method of Valve Orinding. — The process of seating

228 The Ford Model T Car

valves by grinding is not a difficult one, requiring patience
more than mechanical skill The first step is to remove
the valves, which may be accomplished as shown at Fig.
75, using the regular Ford tool, or at Fig. 76, using another
type of valve spring compressor. Before the valves can

be removed, the spring that keeps tliem seated must be
raised enough to permit the removal of the valve seat
pin shown at Fig. 75. After the pin is pulled out of the
valve stem, the valve may be ]Duslied up from its seat and
removed for examination. The writer believes that it
is better to remove the manifolds before grinding the-'
valves, so the tool shown at Fig. 76 is best to raise flie

Valve Grinding Process 22a

valve spring as it does not depend upon a manifold re-
taining stirrup as an anchorage. Another advantage is
that it keeps the valve head against the seat while the
spring is compressed.

A special bit stock arrangement made especially for

<>i~^

LZ^

grinding in Ford valves is shown in use at Fig. 78. The
lower portion of the valve grinding tool has two pins to
engage the corresponding holes in the valve head. An
abrasive paste is placed between the valve head and seat
and the valve is turned or oscillated so the cutting mate-
rial removes the roughness from the valve seat and valve,
fitting one to the other. It is advisable to ]ift the valve

280 The Ford Model T Car

from its seat frequently as the grinding operation con-
tiuues, this is to provide an even distribution of the abra-
sive material placed between the valve head and its seat
( )iily sufficient pressure is given to the bit stock to over-
«ouie the uplift of the spring beneath the valve and to

y^'j ^^ 1

rjr ■:;—

El^

^__^ 1

■w^

^^^^^

•

■< & i .r*"

Fig. 78.— Showing Use of Spacial Tool for arinding Ford VilItw.

insure that the valve ■will be held agiiiiist the seat. "Wliere
the spring is not used it is i)0SKible to lift the valve from
time to time with the hand, which is placed under the
valve stem to raise it as tiie j!;miding is carried on. It
is not always possible to lift the valve in this manner when
the cylinders are in place on tlie eugino base owing to
the space between the valve lift jjlunger and the end of

Valve Grrinding Process 231

the valve stem. In this event, the use of the spring as
shown in Fig. 78, where it is discernible through the gas
port will he desirable to raise the valve head when the
grinding tool is lifted and the pressure released.

The abrasive generally used is a paste made of medium
or fine emery and lard oil or kerosene. This is used until
the surfaces are comparatively smooth, after which the
final polish or finish is given with a paste of flour emery,
grindstone dust, crocus, or ground glass and oil. An
erroneous impression prevails in some quarters that the
valve head surface and the seating must have a mirror-
like polish. While this is not necessary it is essential
that the seat in the cylinder and the bevel surface of the
head be smooth and free from pits or scratches at the
completion of the operation. All traces of the emery
and oil should be thoroughly washed out of the valve
chamber with gasoline before the valve mechanism is
assembled, and in fact it is advisable to remove the old
grindiiog compound at regular intervals, wash the seat
thoiotighly and supply fresh materials from time to time
as the process is in progress. The truth of seatings may
be tested by taking some Prussian blue pigment and
spreading a thin film of it over the valve seat. The valve
is dropped in place and is given about one-eighth turn
with a little pressure on the tool. If the seating is good
both valve head and seat will be covered unifonnlv with
color. If high spots exist, the heavy deposit of color will
show these while the low spots will be made evident be-
cause of the lack of pigment. The grinding process should
be continued until the test shows an even bearing of the
valve head at all points of the cylinder seating.

Inspection of Piston Rings. — The piston rings should be
taken out of the piston grooves and all carbon deposits

232 The Ford Model T Car

removed from the inside of the ring and the bottom of
the groove. It is important to take this deposit ont be-
cause it prevents the rings from performing their proper
functions by reducing the ring elasticity, and if the deposit
is allowed to accumulate it may eventually result in stick-
ing and binding of the ring, this producing excessive fric-
tion or loss of compression; When the rings are removed
they should be tested to see if they retain their elasticity.
If gas has been blowing by the rings or if these members
have not been fitting the cylinder properly the points
where the gas passed will be evidenced by a burnt, brown
or roughened portion of the polished surface of the pistons
and rings. The point where this discoloration will be no-
ticed more often is at the thin end of an eccentric ring,
the discoloration being present for about %" or %" each
side of the slot. It may be possible that the rings were
not true when first put in. This made it possible for the
gas to leak by in a small amount initially which increased
due to continued pressure until quite a large area for gas
escape had been created.

Piston Ring Manipulation. — ^Removing piston rings is a
difficult operation if the x>roper means are not taken but
is a simple one when the trick is known. The tools re-
quired are very simple, being three strips of thin steel
about one-quarter inch wide and four or five inches long
and a pair of spreading tongs made up of one-quarter inch
diameter keystock tied in the center with a copper wire to
form a hinge. The construction is such that when the hand
is closed and the handles brought together the other end
of the expander spreads out, an action just opposite to
that of the conventional pliers. The method of using the
tongs and the metal strips is clearly indicated at Fig. 79.
At A the ring expander is shown spreading the ends of the

Piston Ring Manipulation 288

rings sufficiently to insert the pieces of sheet metal be-
tween one of the rings and the piston. Grasp the ring as
shown at B, pressing it off with the thumbs on the top of
the piston and the ring will slide off easily, the thin metal
strips acting as guide members to prevent the ring from
catching in the other piston grooves. Usually no difficulty

is experienced in removing the top or bottom rings as
these members may be easily expanded and worked off
directly without the use of a metal strip. When removing
the intermediate rings, however, the metal strips will be
found very useful. These are usually made by the repair-
man by grinding the teeth from old hacksaw blades and
rounding the edges and comers in order to reduce the
liability of cutting the fingers. By the use of the three

234 The Ford Model T Car

metal strips a ring is removed without breaking or dis-
torting it and practically no time is consumed in the
operation.

Fitting Piston Rings. — Before installing new rings, they
should be carefully fitted to the grooves to which they are
applied. The tools required are a large piece of fine emery
cloth, a thin flat file, a small vise with copper or leaden
jaw clips and a hard smooth surface such as that afforded
by the top of a surface plate or a well planed piece of
hard wood. After making sure that all deposits of burnt
oil and carbon have been removed from the piston grooves,
three rings are selected, one for each groove. The ring
is turned all around its circumference into the groove it
is to fit which can be done without springing it over the
piston as the outside edge of the ring may be used to test
the width of the groove just as well as the inside edge.
The ring should be a fair fit and while free to move cir-
cumf erentially there should be no appreciable up and down
motion. If rings are a tight fit, each should be laid edge
down upon the piece of eineiy cloth which is placed on the
surface plate and carefully rubbed down until it fits the
groove.it is to occuj)y. It is advisable to fit each piston
ring individually and to mark them in some way to insure
that they will be placed in the groove to which they are
fitted.

The repairman next turns his attention to fitting the
ring in the cylinder itself. The ring should be pushed into
the cylinder at least two inches up from the bottom and en-
deavor should be made to have the lower edge of the ring
parallel with the bottom of the cylinder. If the ring is
not of correct diameter but is slightly larger than the
cylinder bore, this condition will be evident by the angular
slots of the rings being out of line or by difficulty in in-

Fitting Piston Rings 235

serting the ring if it is a lap joint form. If such is the
case the ring is removed from the cylinder and placed
in the vise between soft metal jaw clips. Sufficient metal,
is removed with a fine file from the edges of the ring at
the slot until the edges come into line and a slight space
exists between them when the ring is placed in the cylin-
der. It is important that this space be left between the
ends for if this is not done when the ring becomes heated
the expansion of metal may cause the ends to abut and
the ring to jam in the cylinder.

It is necessary to use more than ordinary caution in
replacing the rings on the piston because they are usually
made of cast iron, a metal that is very fragile and liable
to break because of its brittleness. Special* care should
be taken in replacing new rings as these members are
more apt to break than old ones. This is probably ac-
counted for by heating action on used rings which tends
to anneal the metal as well as making it less springy. The
bottom ring should be placed in position first, which is
easily accomplished by springing the ring open enough
to pass on the piston and then sliding it into place in the
lower groove which on some types of engines is below
the wrist pin whereas in others all grooves are above that
member. The other members are put in by a reversal of
the process outlined at Fig. 79. It is not always neces-
sary to use the guiding strips of metal .when replacing
rings as it is often possible, by pfrtting the rings on the
piston a little askew and manuvering them to pass the
grooves witbenrf springing the ring into them. The top
riiqf e^uld be the last one placed in position.

Before replacing pistons in the cylinder one should
make siure that the slots in the piston rings are spaced
equidistant on the piston. The slots should never be in

286 The Ford Model T Car

line, especially with diagonal cut rings. The cylinder
should be well oiled before attempt is made to install the
pistons. The engine should be run with more than the
ordinary amount of lubricant for several days after new
piston rings have been inserted. On first starting the
engine, one may be disappointed in that the compression
is even less than that obtained with the old rings. This
condition will soon become remedied as the rings become
polished and adapt themselves to the contour of the cylin-
der. It will take fully 100 miles of road work to bring
the rings to a suflSciently good fit so that a marked im-
provement in compression will be noticed.

Wrist Pin Wear. — While wrist pins are usually made
of very tougli steel, case-hardened, with the object of wear-
ing out an easily renewable bronze bushing in the piston
bosses rather than the wrist pin, it sometimes happens
that these members will be worn so that even the replace-
ment of new bushings in the piston will not reduce the
lost motion and attendant noise due to a loose wrist pin.
The only remedy is to fit new wrist pins to the piston.
Where the connecting rod is clamped to the wrist pin and
that member oscillates in the piston bosses the wear will
usually be indicated on bronze bushings which are pressed
into the piston bosses. These are easily renewed and
after running a reamer of the proper size through them no
difficulty should, be experienced in replacing either the
old or a new wrist pin depending upon the condition of
that member.

Inspection and Refitting of Engine Bearings.— While the
engine is dismantled one has an excellent opportunity to
examine the various bearing points in the engine crank
case to ascertain if any looseness exists due to deprecia-
tion of the bearing surfaces. As will be evident from B^.

Refitting Engine Beanngs 237

73 the three main crank abaft hearings and the lower ends
of the connecting rods may he easily examined for de-
terioration when the crank case lower half is removed-
With the rods in place as shown.it is not difficult to feel
the amount of lost motion by grasping the connecting rod
firmly with the hand and attempting to move it up and

down. The appearance of the engine hase after the con-
necting rods and fl\-wheel have been removed from the
crank shaft is shown at Fig, 80, while the appearance of
the inverted upper jjortion of the crank case after the
crank shaft is .removed is clearly shown at Fig. 81, In
this view the cylinder block is supported head end down
on the bench.

After the connecting rods have been removed and the

238 The Ford Model T Car

flywheel taken off the crank shaft to permit of ready
handling, any looseness in the main bearing may be de-
tected by lifting up either the front or rear end of the
crank shaft with a pinch bar and observing if there is
any lost motion between the shaft journal and the main
bearing caps. It is not necessary to take an engine
entirely apart to examine the main bearings, as in the
Ford engine these may be readily reached by removing
a large inspection plate from the bottom of the engine
crank case. This may be done without taking the engine
out of the frame, though if bearings are worn to any ex-,
tent much time will be saved by having the engine base
on a bench where it can be reached easily, and worked on
with some degree of comfort.

''Knocking" Indicates Loose Bearings. — ^If an engine
knocks when a vehicle is traveling over level roads re-
gardless of speed or spark lever position and the trouble
is not due to carbon deposits in the combustion chamber
one may reasonably surmise that the main bearings have
become loose or that lost motion may exist at the con-
necting rod big ends and possibly at the Avrist pins. The
main journals of the Ford engine are proportioned with
ample surface and will not wear unduly unless lubrication
has been neglected. The connecting rod bearings wear
quicker than the main bearings owing to being subjected
to a greater unit stress and it may be necessary to take
these up several times in a season if the car is driven to
any extent. Main bearings should run for ten thousand
miles without attention in a j^roperly built engine that
has always been well oiled. Most connecting rod bBHOF-
ings will loosen np enough to be taken up in five thoiusaiid
miles.

Adjusting Main Bearings. — ^When the bearings are not

Adjusting Main Bearings 239

worn enough to require refitting the lost motion can often
be eliminated by removing one or more of the thin shims
or liners ordinarily used to separate the bearing caps
from the seat. Care must be taken that an even number
of shims of the same thickness are removed from each
side of the journal. If there is considerable lost motion
after one or two shims have been removed it will be ad-
visable to file some metal from the bearing cap and to
scrape the bearing to a fit before the bearing cap is finally
tightened up.

The following instructions for refitting main bearings
are given by the Ford Motor Company in their book of
instructions :

(1) After the engine has been taken out of the car,
remove crank case, transmission cover, cylinder head,
pistons, connecting rods, transmission and magneto coils.
Take off the three babbitted caps and clean the bearing
surfaces with gasoline. Apply blue or red lead to the
crank shaft bearing surfaces, which will enable you, in
fitting the caps, to determine whether a perfect bearing
surface is obtained.

(2) Place the rear cap in position and tighten it up as
much as possible without stripping the bolt threads.
When the bearing has been properly fitted, the crank shaft
will permit moving with one hand. If the crank shaft
cannot be turned with one hand, the contact between the
bearing surfaces is evidently too close, and the cap re-
quires shimming up, one or two brass liners usually being
sufficient. In case the crank shaft moves too easily with
one hand, the shims should be removed and the steel sur-
face of the cap filed off, permitting it to set closer.

(3) After removing the cap, observe whether the blue
or red **spottings" indicate a full bearing the length of

240 The Ford Model T Car

the cap. If * * spottipgs ' ' do not show a true bearing, the
babbitt should be scraped and the cap refitted until the
proper results are obtained.

(4) Lay the rear cap aside and proceed to adjust the
center bearing in the same manner. Repeat the operar
tion with the front bearing, with the other two bearings
laid aside.

(5) "When the proper adjustment of each bearing has
been obtained, clean the babbitt surface carefully and
place a little lubricating oil on the bearings, also on the
crank shaft ; then draw the caps up as closely as possible
— ^the necessary shims, of course, being in place. Do not be
afraid of getting the cap bolts too tight, as the shim under
the cap and the oil between the bearing surfaces will pre-
vent the metal being drawn into too close contact. If oil
is not put on the bearing surfaces, the babbitt is apt to cut
out when the motor is started up before the oil in the
crank case can get into the bearing.

In replacing the crank case and transmission cover on
the motor, it is advisable to use a new set of felt gaskets to
prevent oil leaks.

Scraping Brasses To Fit. — To insure that the bearing
brasses will be a good fit on the crank pins or crank shaft
joui-nals they must be scraped to fit. The process of scrap-
ing, while a tedious one, is not difficult, requiring only
patience and some degree of care to do a good job. The
crank pin surface is smeared with Prussian blue pigment
which is spread evenly over the entire surface. The bear-^
ings are then clamped together in the usual manner with
proper bolts and the crank shaft revolved several times
to indicate the high spots on the bearing cap. At the start
of the process of scraping in, the bearing may seat at only
a few points. Continued scraping will bring the bearing

Scraping Bearings to Fit

241

surface practically across the brass, which is a con-
siderable improvement, while the process may be consid-
ered complete when the brass indicates a bearing all over.
The high spots are indicated by blue, as where the shaft
does not bear on the bearing there is no color. The high
spots are removed by means of scraping tools of the form

shown at Figs. 81 and 85, which may be easily made from
womout files. These are forged to shape and ground
liollow and are kept pro])erIy sharpened by frequent rub-
bing on an ordinary oil stone. To scrape properly the edge
of the scraper must be very keen. The straight or curved
half round type works well on soft bearing metals such as
babbitt or white brass, but on yellow brass or bronze it
cuts very slowly and as soon as the edge becomes dull

242

The Ford Model T Car

considerable pressure is needed to remove any metal, this
calling for frequent sharpening.

^Vbeii correcting errors on flat or corved surfaces by
handscraping, it is desirable, of course, to obtain an evenly

spotted bearing with as littie scra])ing as possible. When
the part to be scraped is first applied to the surface-plate,
or to a journal in the case of a bearing, three or four
"high" spots may be indicated by the marking material.
The time required to reduce these high sjwts and obtain a
bearing that is distributed over the entire surface de-

Bemetalling Connecting Bods 243

pends largely upon the way the scraping is started. If
the first bearing marks indicate a decided rise in the sur-
face, much time can be saved by scraping larger areas than
covered by the bearing marks, this is especially true of
engine bearings. An experienced workman will not only
remove the heavy marks, but also reduce a larger area;
then, when the bearing is tested again, the marks will
generally be distributed somewhat. If the heavy marks
which usually appear at first are simply removed by light
scraping, these * * point bearings ' ' are gradually enlarged,
but a much longer time will be required to distribute
them.

The number of times the bearing must be applied to
the journal for testing is important. The time required
to distribute the bearing marks evenly depends largely
upon one's judgment in ** reading'' these marks. In the
early stages of the scraping operation the marks should
be used partly as a guide for showing the high areas, and
instead of merely scraping the marked spot the surface
surrounding it should also be reduced, unless it is evident
that the unevenness is local. The idea should be to obtain
first a few large but generally distributed marks ; then an
evenly and finely spotted surface can be produced quite
easily.

Remetalling and Pitting Connecting Rods. — Fitting and
adjusting rod bearings, especially those at the crank pin
end is one of the operations that must be performed sev-
eral times a season if a car is used to any extent. There
are two forms of connecting rods in general use, known
respectively as the marine type, and the hinged form.
The hinge type is the simplest, but one clamp bolt being
used to keep the parts together as the cap is hinged to the
rod end on one side, this permitting the lower portion to

244 The Ford Model T Car

swing down and the crank pin to pass out from between
the halves when the retaining bolt is removed. In the mar-
ine type, which is that used on the Ford Model T, one bolt
is employed at each side and the cap must be removed en-
tirely before the bearing can be taken off of the crank pin.
The tightness of the brasses around the crank pin can
never be determined solely by the adjustment of the
bolts, as while it is important that these should be drawn
up as tightly as possible the bearing should fit the shaft
without undue binding even if the brasses must be scraped
to insure a proper fit. As is true of the main bearings
the marine form of connecting rod may have a number
of liners or shims interposed between the top and cap
portions of the rod end, and these may be reduced in
number when necessary to bring the brasses closer to-
gether.

Before assembling on the shaft, it is necessary to fit
the bearings by scraping, the same instructions given for
restoring the contour of the main bearings applying just
as well in this case. It is apparent that if the crank pins
are not round no amount of scraping will insure a true
bearing. A point to observe is to make sure that the heads
of the cap retaining bolts are imbedded solidly in their
proper position and that they are not raised by any burrs
or particles of dirt under the head which will flatten out
after the engine has been run for a time and allow the bolts
to slack off. Similarly, care should be taken that there
is no foreign matter under the brasses and the box in
which they seat. To guard against this, the bolts should
be struck with a hammer several times after they are
tightened up and the connecting rod can be hit sharpdiy
several times under the cap with a wooden mallet or
lead hammer.

Bemetalling Connecting Bods 245

Care should be taken in screwing on the retaining nuts
to insure that they will remain in place and not slack off.
Spring washers should never be used on either connecting
rod ends or main bearing bolts because these sometimes
snap in two pieces and leave the nut slack. The best
method of locking is to use well-fitting split pins and
castellated nuts as supplied.

The following advice from the Ford Manual is perti-
nent:

* * Remember, there is a possibility of getting the bear-
ings too tight, and under such conditions the babbitt is apt
to cut out quickly, unless precaution is taken to run the
motor slowly at the start. It is a good plan after ad-
justing the bearings to jack up the rear wheels and let the
motor run slowly for about two hours (keeping it well
supplied with water and oil) before taking it out on the
road. Whenever possible these bearings should be fitted
by an expert Ford mechanic."

If the babbitt lining is worn sufficiently so it must be
replaced or if it has been burned out by running the en-
gine without oil, the connecting rod and cap must be
rebabbitted. The Ford makers advise returning the con-
necting rods to the factory or to the nearest service sta-
tion. They advise as follows:

**Worn connecting rods may be returned, prepaid, to
the nearest agent or branch house for exchange at a price
of 75 cents each to cover the cost of rebabbitting. It is not
advisable for any owner or repair shop to attempt the re-
babbitting of connecting rods or main bearings, for with-
out a special jig in which to form the bearings, satisfactory
results will not be obtained. The constant tapping of
a loose connecting rod on the crank shaft will event-
ually produce crystallization of the steel — result, broken

246 The Ford Model T Car

crank shaft and possibly other parts of the engine dam-
aged. ' '

If the parts are wanted in a hurry, it is possible for
any competent repair man to rig up and replace the lin-
ing metal himself, though this will not be a profitable
operation if the parts can be procured from the factory in
time.

The repair man who is called upon to replace the
bearing metal will find the following instructions regard-
ing remetalling bearings of value. The method described
was used by the writer while in charge of a large shop
where much work of this kind was done, and while instruc-
tions given apply specifically to lining the big ends of con-
necting rods the same process may be used successfully
on any other bearings where the mandrel and collars can
be used, the dimensions being changed to suit the re-
quirements of the worker. Obviously the old metal must
be thoroughly cleaned out and rod end made ready to re-
ceive the new lining before any attempt is made to pour
in new metal.

In the case mentioned the journals of the crank shaft
were two inches in diameter and the big ends of the
connecting rods were worn too much to allow of adjusting.
A piece of pipe about 9 inches long was procured and
turned down in a lathe until it was a shade under 2" in
diameter, which made a hollow mandrel of it. A piece of
steel tubing could have been used to as good advantage
had any been available. As the outside of the bearing
caps were machined true a couple of set collars were bored
out to be a good fit on the mandrel, and while still in the
lathe they were recessed out to just fit over the outside
of the big ends, as shown in sketch. Fig. 83. One of these
collars was placed on the hollow mandrel. A, after which

Bemetalling Connecting Bods

247

the mandrel was pushed through the big end, and the

other collar was put on the other side, insuring that the

mandrel was as near the center as possible for it to be.

The assemblage is then supported on a couple of V-

\''fffffffffJfffffff**tf/ffffffrffef£efee/rettffff/e,„

""f"*f^fff^f*f^fff*/ff^ff*ffffffff^f^f^tff^fff/^t

Hollow Handrel

Bo/

Lathe
KETHOD OF POlTRINa

Jl ^Connoctiag Bod

Connecting Bod

Height Gauge

Straightedge

Mandrel'

■andrel
V«lock-^ •

&=^

Pistop

Connecting Bod

-V-Block

Surface Plate

Fig. 83^ — ^nLustrations Showing Method of Eebabbitting Connecting
Bod Bearings at A and Method of Testing Connecting Bod Bearing
Parallelism at B.

blocks which are supported on a lathe bed, the ends of the
mandrel lying within the V's, while the connecting rod
hangs between the ways. A piece of solid round iron or
steel which will go inside of the hollow mandrel should
be made red hot while the anti-friction metal is being

248 The Ford Model T Car

melted and is pushed inside the mandrel to heat it. In
a minute or two the metal may be poured in through
B to fill annulus D, and as the metal and the big end
caps are well heated the molten metal will flow to every
point.

The heating of the mandrel can be just as well accom-
plished by directing the flame from a blow torch or Bun-
sen burner into the opening. After the metal is poured
and has set well the whole may be easily cooled by direct-
ing a blast of air against the big end. During the pouring
process the cap is separated from the rod end by shims
of oiled cardboard. This is afterward replaced by brass
shims. As is evident, the thinner the liners and the great-
er the number used, the more sensitive the character of fu-
ture adjustment possible. A hollow mandrel is to be pre-
ferred to a solid one because of the ease with which it can
bo heated and cooled. The mandrel sliould be about .025"
smaller than the crank pins. Vents should be made for
the heated gases by grooving the face of each of the collars
nearest the big end and on the same side as the hole
through which the metal is poured. If provision is not
made for * Renting" the molten metal will not run uni-
formly and will become honeycombed. After cooling, the
bearing is either bored out in a lathe to the size of the
journal or scraped to a fit by hand. The method of pour-
ing the molten metal is clearly shown while the sectional
view makes the construction and application of the man-
drel clear. The same method may be used to rebabbitt
main boxes except that a pair of collars will be needed
for each bearing and a long mandrel used to insure proper
alignment of the three bearings.

Testing Bearing Parallelism. — It is not possible to give
other than general directions regarding the proper degree

Testing Bearing ParalleUsm 249

of tightening for a connecting rod bearing, but as a giiide
to correct adjustment it may be said that if the connecting
rod cap is tightened sufficiently so the connecting rod will
just about fall over from a vertical position due to the
piston weight when the bolts are fully tightened up as in
Fig. M, the adjustment will be nearly correct. As pre-

; Fig. 81. — Connecting Bod BearicgE Mb-j T>e Easily Fitted to tbs Crank
Sliaft If TMs Member 13 Removed from tbe Engine and Supported
l)y Bencli Vise.

viously'stated, babbitt or white metal bearings can be set
ap more tightly than bronze, as the metal is softer and any
high spd^ will soon be leveled down with the running of
the engine. It is important that care be taken to preser\'e
parallelism of the wrist pins and crank shaft while scrap-
ing in bearings. This can be determined in several ways.
That shown at Fig. 83, B, is used when the parts are not
in the engine assembly and when the connecting rod bear-

Camshaft and Timing Gears 251

ing is being fitted to a mandrel or arbor the same size as
the crank pin. The arbor, which is finished very smooth
and of uniform diameter, is placed in two V-blocks which
in turn are supported by a level surface plate. An adjust-
able height gauge may be tried, first at one side of the
wrist pin which is placed at the upper end of the con-
necting rod, then at the other and any variation will be
easily determined by the degree of tilting of the rod.
This test may be made with the wrist pin alone or if the
piston is in place a straight edge on the piston top may be
employed. A spirit level will readily show any inclination,
while the straight edge is used in connection with the
height gauge as indicated.

* Camshafts and Timing Gtears. — ^Knocking sounds are also
evident if the camshaft is loose in its bearings and also
if the timing gears are loose on the shaft. The camshaft
is usually supported by solid bearings of the removable
bashing type having no compensation for depreciation. If
these bearings wear the only remedy is replacement with
new ones. Another point to watch is the method of retain-
ing the camshaft gear in place. On some engines the gear
is fastened to a flange on the camshaft by retaining screw.
These are not apt to become loose, but where reliance is
]glaeed on a key, as in the Ford, the camshaft gear may
often be loose on its supporting member. The only remedy
is to enlarge the key slot in both gear and shaft and to fit
a larger retaining key.

If the camshaft is sprung or twisted it will alter the
valve timing to such an extent that the smoothness of
'^operation of the engine will be materially affected. If
this condition is suspected the cam shaft may be swung
on lathe centers and turned to see if it runs out and if
bent it can be straightened in any of the usual forms of

252 The Ford Model T Car

shaft straightening machines. The shaft may, be twisted
without being sprung. This can only be determined by
supporting one end of the shaft in an index head and the
other end on a milling machine center. The cams are then
checked to see that they are separated by the proper de-
gree of angularity. This process is one that requires a
thorough knowledge of the valve timing of the engine in
question and is best done at the factory where the engine
was made. The timing gears should also be examined to
see if the teeth are worn enough so that considerable back
lash or lost motion exists between them. A worn timing
gear not only produces noise but it will cause the time of
opening and closing of the engine valves to vary ma-
terially.

Valve Timing Method. — Among the factors making for
efficient operation of the gasoline engine, especially of the
multiple cylinder type used for automobile propulsion,
there is none of more importance than proper valve timing.
In the Ford four cylinder four-cycle motor there are
eight of these members, two to each cylinder, the function
of the inlet valves being to permit the cylinders to fill with
gas while the exhaust valves open to clear the cylinders of
the products of combustion. The inlet valve usually opens
when the i)iston is at approximately the top of its stroke
in the cylinder or during that portion of the engine cycle
where the i)iston is starting to go down to draw in a charge
of gas. This valve is opened at a period equal to the down-
stroke of the piston and sometimes more, but is closed
during the succeeding compression, explosion and scaveng-
ing strokes. The operation of the exhaust valve is very
much the same as the inlet except that it is opened for a
longer period, starting to open before the piston has com-
pleted the downward stroke produced by the explosion and

Valve Timing Method 253

is sometimes opened slightly after the end of the return
or scavenging stroke.

"When the space between the valve stem and the valve
lifter is more than it should be there are two methods
of compensating for this depreciation. On many small
motors no adjustment is provided between the valve stem
and the valve stem plunger. The makers of the. Ford car
formerly advised drawing the valve stem out until the
proper space existed between the push rod and the stem.
It is important when drawing out the stem or lengthening
it not to bend the valve stem as this will result in the
valves sticking, or in any event the bore of the valve stem
guide in the cylinder will be worn unevenly. The clear-
ance between the pushrod and the valve stem should never
be greater than ^2" nor less than %4". If too much clear-
ance is pregfent the valve will open late and close early.
If the clearance is less than the minimum there is danger
of the valve remaining partially open all of the time be-
cause the valve stem lengthens due to expansion produced
by the heat of the explosion. When it is necessary to
draw down a valve stem this should be done by peening it
for about %" above the pinhole or key slot.

It is not a difficult matter to set the clearance exactly
as it should be on those types of engines provided with an
adjustment screw which may be raised or lowered in the
valve plunger or, in forms having fiber inserts in the top
of the valve plunger. These inserts are utilized to silence
the valve action and may be easily removed and replaced
with new ones when worn. A simple and cheap accessory
that can be obtained on the open market can be used to
adjust the clearance on Ford and similar type niotors.
This consists of a number of stamped steel cups that can
be pushed on the lower portion of the valve stem and a

The Ford Model T Car

Ffg. 86. — Diagram Showing Uetliod of Timing Ford TalTM.

number of thin steel washers to be interposed inside of
the cup and between the bottom of that member and the
end of the valve stem to regulate the clearance as de-
sired.

Valve Timing in Ford Engines 255

Valve Timing in/ Ford Engines. — ^After the valves have
been ground in and seated properly it is important that the
timing of the valves be verified. As the valves have been
properly timed when the engine is assembled at the fac-
tory the only reason for checking the timing would be
during the overhauling when the camshaft or timing gears
have been removed from the engine base. In fitting the
large timing gear to the camshaft it is important to see
that the first cam points in a direction opposite from the
zero mark as shown at Fig. 86, E. The large and small
time gears must also mesh, so that the tooth marked on
the small timing gear will coincide with a similar mark
between the two teeth on the large gear. With the timing
gears set as indicated the exhaust valve in No. 1 cylinder
is opened and the intake valve closed.

The opening and closing point of the valves is as fol-
lows: The intake valve opens with the piston %6 of an
inch down from top center as shown at Fig. 86, A. The
inlet valve closes %6 inch after the piston has reached bot-
tom center as shown at Fig. 86, B, the distance from the
top of the piston to the top of the cylinder casting measur-
ing 3%th inches. The exhaust valve opens when the piston
reaches a poiqt on its travel from %6th inch to /4 inch be-
fore lower center on third stroke, as shown at Fig. 86, C.
The distance from the top of the piston head to the top
of the cylinder casting at the time the exhaust valve starts
to open is 3% inches. The exhaust valve should close on
top center between the third and fourth strokes as shown
at Fig. 86, B. The piston top at this time is %6 inch above
the cylinder casting. The clearance between the push rod
and valve stem should be carefully gauged as previously
mentioned. Obviously this gap should be measured when
the push rod is at the extreme lower point of its travel

256 The Ford Model T Car

or riding on the rounded portion and not the point of the
cam.

When the push rods or valve stems become worn so as
to leave too much play between them, it is best to replace
with new push rods. The operation of drawing down the
valve stems requires considerable experience and the price
of the new part does not warrant the time and expense
necessary to do the work as it should be done. Mention
has been made of simple clearance adjusters made es-
pecially for Ford valves but these are not marketed by
the Ford people and can only be obtained from supply
houses. If the valves fail to seat themselves properly
there is a possibility that the valve springs may be weak
or broken. It is stated that a Aveak inlet valve spring
will not affect the running of the engine as much as a
sluggish acting exhaust valve spring. Weakness in a
valve spring can be easily detected by removing the cover
plate and inserting a screw driver between the coils of the
spring while the engine is running. Each of the exhaust
valve springs is tried in turn, and if the extra tension
thus produced results in the engine picking up speed the
spring is too weak and should be replaced with a new
one.

Repairing Ford Magneto. — ^While the engine is disman-
tled it is a good time to make any repairs that may be
necessary to the magneto, these being rarely needed on
account of the simplicity of the device. The Ford magneto
consists of permanent magnets, and there is not much
liability of their losing their strength unless acted upon by
some outside force, though cases have been known where
much of the magnetism has been lost due to overheating
the engine. If a dry or storage battery has been attached
to the magneto terminal by mistake the magnet strength

Repairing Ford Magneto 257

may be weakened. If on testing with a special instrument
made for the purpose, the magneto does not show the
proper current, instead of attempting to recharge the
magnets the best and cheapest way is to install a complete
set of new ones. These may be obtained from the factory
or nearest agent and will be placed on a board in exactly
the same manner as they should be installed on the fly-
wheel. The magnets may be easily removed from the fly-
wheel as outlined at Fig. 82. Great care should be taken
when assembling the magnets and lining up the parts so
that the pole pieces of the magnets will be separated from
the surface of the coil spools carried by the stationary
plate by no more than H2nd of an inch. To take the old
magnets from the flywheel simply remove the cap screw
and bronze screw which holds each in place.

The magneto is often blamed when the trouble is a
weak current that results by waste or other foreign matter
accumulating under the current collecting contact plunger
which is held in place by the binding post carrier on top of
the transmission case cover. Remove the three screws
which serve to retain this collecting terminal in place, this
allows the binding post to spring up and plunger to be
withdrawn. The contact pad on top of the fixed coil as-
sembly should be thoroughly cleaned and the end of the
plunger brightened with emery cloth before it is replaced.
The magneto cannot be reached for replacing magnets
without taking the power plant out of the car. After the
crank case and transmission covers are off, the flywheel
may be taken off of the flange on the end of the crank shaft
by removing four cap screws that hold the flywheel to that
member. Whenever repairs are necessary to the magneto
such as replacing magnets or making sure that all magnet
retaining screws and bolts are tight, the best way is to

258

The Ford Model T Car

have the parts on a bench where they may be easily
reached, as shown at Fig. 82.

Packings and Oaskets for Ford Motor. — If the power
plant has been taken apart it may be found desirable to
replace the various gaskets and packing members with new
ones when reassembling the parts. This applies especially
to the felt packings, which are apt to be torn when the
pieces resting on them are removed quickly. The copper

Fig. 87. — Copper Asbestos Gaskets Used on Ford Motor.

asbestos gaskets which are used as packings on the com-
bustion chamber end of the engine do not depreciate ■ as
readily as those made of felt, though when these flatten
out it may be well to replace them with new, because they
are so cheap that it would be questionable economy to use
them if there was any doubt about their condition.

A set of the copper-asbestos packings for the cylinder
heads of the Ford engine is shown at Fig. 87. That at A,
is the member placed between the cylinder head and cyliilr-

Gaskets for Ford Motor 259

der block, those at B and C are used between the water
connections, those at E are placed under the inlet and ex-
haust manifolds ; that at D is placed between the carbure-
tor and flange on the lower portion of the inlet manifold,
while the small packing at F is used at the lower portion
of the crank case or flywheel compartment as a seating
for the oil drain plug.

The felt packings are clearly shown at Fig. 88. The
strips at A, are placed between the pressed steel crank
case member and the cylinder block. The piece marked
M, is employed between the top of the transmission case
and the pressed steel lower portion. The large packing, C,
is placed between the bottom plate of the crank case and
the pressed steel lower crank case member. Packing D
is utilized under the transmission case cover plate on
late model Ford cars, while that shown at E is used
on some of the earlier models having a square cover
plate.

The small comer pieces, B, are used on the valve cham-
ber cover plates. . The gasket, F, goes between the mem-
bers of the universal joint ball housing. Piece H fits
under the magneto collecting brush terminal fitting.
Washers I, J, K and L, are oil retention members for the
front and rear axles. The control bracket felts are placed
in recesses in the supporting bearing of the cross shaft
to which the hand brake control lever is fastened and
serve to retain oil and insure adequate lubricity of the
cross shaft.

The crank case arm felts are intended to be placed be-
tween the arms and the frame side member. The strips
shown which are not lettered are used to complete the
packing between the timing gear case portions and be-
tween the upper transmission case and round portion

260

The Ford Model T Car

against which it fits on the engine base. When replao-
ing either the copper asbestos or felt packings it is well
to coat these with heavy shellac before the parts are as-
sembled. The shellac fills any irregularities that may
exist in the surfaces and prevents oil leakage.

Precautions in Reassembling Parts. — When all of the
essential components of a power plant have been care-
fully looked over and cleaned and all defects eliminated,
either by adjustment or replacement of worn portions, fhe
motor should be reassembled, taking care to have the
parts occupy just the same relative positions they did be-

Precautions in Reassembling Parts 261

fore the motor was dismantled. As each part is added to
the assemblage, care should be taken to insure adequate
lubrication of all new points of bearing by squirting lib-
eral quantities of cylinder oil upon them with a hand oil
can or syringe provided for the purpose. In adjusting
the crank shaft bearings tighten them one at a time and
revolve the shaft each time one of the bearing caps is
set up to insure that the newly adjusted bearing does not
have undue friction. All retaining keys and pins must be
positively placed and it is good practice to cover such a
part with lubricant before replacing it because it will not
only drive easier but the part may be removed more
easily if necessary at some future time if no rust collects
around it.

When a piece is held by more than one bolt or screw,
especially if it is a casting of brittle material such as cast
iron, the fastening bolts should be tightened uniformly.
If one bolt is tightened more than the rest it is liable to
spring the casting enough to break it. This applies es-
pecially to the Ford water connection castings. Spring
washers, check nuts, split pins or other locking means
should always be provided, especially on parts which are
in motion or subjected to a load. When reassembling the
inlet and exhaust manifolds it is well to use only perfect
packings or gaskets and to avoid the use of those that
seem to have hardened up or flattened out too much in
service. If it is necessary to use new gaskets it is im-
perative to employ these at all joints on manifold because
if old and new gaskets are used together the new ones are
apt to keep the manifold from bedding properly upon the
used ones.

It is well to coat the threads of all bolts and screws
subjected to heat, such as cylinder head bolts and exhaust

262 The Ford Model T Car

pipe retaining nut, with a mixture of graphite and oil.
Those that enter the water jacket should be covered with
white or read lead or pipe thread compound. Gaskets
will hold better if coated with shellac before manifold or
other parts are placed over them. The shellac fills any
irregularities in the joints and assists materially in pre-
venting leakage after the joint is made up and the coating
has a chance to set. In replacing cylinder head packings
on cars like the Ford it is well to run the engine for a
short while, several minutes at the most, without any
water in the jacket in order to heat the head up thor-
oughly. It will usually be found possible to tighten down
a little more on all of the cylinder head retaining bolts
after this is done because if the gasket has been coated
with shellac the surplus material will have burnt off and
the entire packing bedded down. Care should be taken
when using shellac, white or red lead, etc., not to supply
so much that the surplus will run into the cylinder, water
jacket or gas passages.

Taking Down Transmission. — ^After the car has been in
use for a considerable period, especially in sections of the
country where frequent use of the slow speed gearing is
necessary, the transmission will become very noisy in
action and will rattle and grind when either the slow or
reverse brake bands are operated. Owing to the fact
that there are no gears in operation on the high speed
but little trouble will be experienced with the clutch disc
assembly unless the disc surfaces have become roughened
or have worn enough so that no further adjustment is
possible with a clutch adjusting screw. While the power
plant is out of the frame it will be found desirable to take
the transmission gearing ai)art and examine the various
fastenings and gears. The gears are not apt to wear

264 The Ford Model T Car

very much and practically the only trouble will be depre-
ciation of the bushings that form bearings for the triple
gear assembly and the various brake drum members.

In taking the transmission gear apart, the first thing
is to drive out the clutch spring thrust ring pin which is
shown at Fig. 89, B. This releases the clutch spring
thrust ring and the clutch spring supports and makes
it possible to remove the clutch spring, clutch shift collar
and driving plate. The driving plate can only be taken
off after the screws by which it is bolted to the brake
drum and clutch carrier are taken out. This exposes the
clutch disc assembly as shown at Fig. 89, C. The clutch
discs are carried by a member known as ^^the disc drum"
shown in group of parts A, Fig. 89. A set screw passes
through this member to key it securely to the crank shaft
extension. When this set screw has been properly
loosened the clutch disc drum may be removed which
leaves the assembly as shown at Fig. 89, D. This assem-
bly, consisting of the reverse drum, slow speed and brake
drums and the triple gears, is held on the flywheel. This
assembly may be easily withdrawn from the flywheel and
the crank shaft extension which is known as the ** trans-
mission" shaft which loaves the group as sho\vn at Fig.
89, E. In order to take this down, the driven gear must
be removed from the brake drum shaft extension, which
will permit the three drums to be pulled apart.

The i)oint to examine carefully after the transmission
has been disassembled is to note if the bushings in the
triple gear assemblies or if the pins attached to the fly-
wheel used for suj^porting tliem are worn. If there is
considerable play between the bushings and the pins the
bushings should be forced out of the triple gear assem-
blies and new ones inserted in their place. The triple

Making Transmission Repairs 266

gear pins should also be replaced with new ones. The
bushings in the reverse drum and gear and in the interior
of the slow speed drum and gear should be carefully
measured to make sure that the slow speed drum is a
good fit on the extending shaft of the brake drum and
that the reverse drum is a proper fit on the extension of
the slow speed drum. If these bushings are worii so
that considerable looseness obtains, the old ones should
be driven out and new ones forced in under an arbor
press.

Before reassembling the brake drum assembly, care
must be taken to. fit the bushings so they will turn freely
on the members by which they are supported. The rela-
tion of the parts to each other in the complete assembly
can be readily understood by referring to Fig. 27, which
is a sectional view of the transmission gearing. The
surfaces of the brake, slow speed and reverse drums
should not be cut or scored as might result if the brake
lining has been improperly applied and iron rivets used
instead of those supplied by the Ford Company. It is
not only important to use the proper rivets but they
should be properly countersunk.

The transmission clutch discs should be removed from
the assembly, thoroughly cleaned and inspected to see if
these are smooth or if the surfaces are badly scored. If
the contacting faces are ridged, which would result if the
operator continually slipped the clutch, the discs should
be smoothed off if the ridges are not deep and new ones
used if the surfaces are badly scored. While taking the
transmission gear apart is not a diflScult operation,
some skill is needed to insure correct reassembling.

The first operation is to assemble the driven gear,
reverse drum and gear, slow speed drum and gear and

266 The Ford Model T Car

brake dram, all of which are shown at Fig. 89, A, to form
the group shown at Fig. 89, E. Place the brake drums
on a bench or table with the hub extending vertically,
then place the slow speed drum over this hub with the
gears uppermost. The reverse drum is then assembled
over the hub of the slow speed drum with its gear mem-
ber uppermost. Next, place two Woodruff keys utilized
to driving the pinion marked ^^ Driven Gear" shown at
A, Fig. 89, in the key ways cut into the brake drum hub
just above the slow speed gear. Put the driven gear in
place with the teeth downward so they will come next to
the slow speed gear. Take the three triple gears and
mesh them Avith the driven gear so that the punch marks
on the teeth correspond, the reverse gear, or smallest one
of the three comprising the assembly, being downward.
When the triple gears have been properly meshed they
should be tied in place by passing a cord or wire around
the outside of the three gear assemblies which is cut and
removed when the group is in place. This group then '
has the appearance shown at Fig. 89, E.

The next step is to assemble group E on the flywheel
The flywheel is placed on the bench with its face down-
Avard so that the transmission shaft projects vertically.
Group E is inverted so that the triple gear assembly will
face the flyA\^heel, then the group is pushed on the trans-
mission shaft allowing it to settle in such a position that
the trijDle gear supporting pins on the flywheel will pass
through the bushings in the triple gear assembly. This
will bring the brake drum on top as shown at Fig. 89, D.
The next thing to do is to fit the clutch drum key in the
transmission shaft and press the clutch disc carrier drnm
in place on the shaft, locking it into position with a set-
screw i^rovided for that purpose. The distance plate^

Reassembling Transmission 267

which is a heavier disc than the clutch plates, is put on
the clutch drum first, then a small disc which is followed
by a large one, then placing another small disc and al-
ternating large and small ones until the entire set of
discs is in position, a large one or member having key-
ways in its outer periphery, being on top. Care should
be taken never to have a small disc or one with keys cut
in its inner periphery on top because it is liable to fall
over the clutch drum when changing the speed from high
to low, and as a result one would be unable to re-engage
the high speed clutch,

The appearance with the clutch disc drum and the
clutch discs in place is shown at Fig. 89, C. The next
step is to put the clutch disc ring over the clutch drum,
then put the clutch push ring over the clutch drum and
on top of the disc ring with the three pins projecting
upward as shown in group of parts B, Fig. 89. The re-
maining parts to be assembled are placed in the order to
be followed in replacing them. Bolt the driving plate in
position on the brake drum so the adjusting screws of the
clutch fingers will bear against the clutch push ring pins.
Before proceeding further the Ford Company advises
the worker to test the transmission hy moving the plates
or drums with the hands. If the transmission is properly
assembled the flywheel will revolve freely while holding
any of the drums stationary or vice versa.

The clutch parts may be assembled on the driving
plate hub as follows : Slip the clutch shift on the hub so
the small end rests on the ends of the clutch finger, next
put on the clutch spring with the clutch support inside
so the flange of that member will rest on the upper coil
of the spring. Next place clutch spring thrust ring with
notched end down and press into place, inserting the pin

Relining Brake Bands 269

in the driving plate hub through the holes in the side of
the spring support. The easiest method of compressing
the spring sufficiently to insert this pin is to loosen the
clutch finger tension by backing out the adjusting screw.
When tightening up the clutch again the spring should
be compressed to a length of 2 or 2346 inches to insure
against the clutch discs slipping. The precaution should
be taken to see that the screws in the driving plate fingers
are adjusted uniformly in order to obtain even compres-
sion of the clutch spring.

Belining Brake Bands. — The parts of the transmission
gear that will wear soonest and which will need inspection
and repair long before the bushings of the gearing have
worn are the friction linings in the three transmission
brake bands. The only way a new lining can be put on
is to remove the brake band from the transmission as-
sembly, which can be done without taking the power plant
out of the frame. The first step is to take off the door on
top of the transmission cover and to turn the reverse
adjustment nut and the brake adjustment nut to the ex-
treme end of the thread on the pedal shaft. This per-
mits the brake bands to expand away from the drum. It
is also important to slack off the slow speed adjusting
screw. Next remove the bolts holding the transmission
cover to the crank case and lift off the cover assembly
as shown at Fig. 90.

Slip the band nearest the flywheel over the first of the
triple gears, then turn the band around so that the open-
ing is downward. The band can now be removed by
lifting upward, as shown at Fig. 91. The operation is
more easily accomplished if the three sets of gears are
so placed that one set is just a little to the right of center
at the top. Each band is removed in the same way. It

270 The Ford Model T Car

is necessary to push each band forward onto the triple
gear assemblies as it is only at this point that there is
room enough in the crank case to allow the upstanding
slotted ears on the transmission bands to be turned down.
The bands are replaced by reversing the operation. .
After being placed in the upright position on drum, a
cord is passed around the ears of the three bands so that
when putting on the transmission cover no trouble will
be experienced in having the pedal shafts rest in the
notches made to receive them in the band ears. The clutch
release ring must be placed in the rear groove of the
clutch shift ring. When the cover is in place remove the
cord that held the bands together while the cover was
being installed.

The operation of relining a brake band is a relativdy
simple one, consisting only of jiuUing off the old brake
lining and driving out the retaining rivets from the holes
in the band. A new lining is placed inside the band and
a piece of steel bar stock is placed in the vise as shown
in Fig. 92, to foim a backing against which the special
rivets are driven by means of a steel drift or rivet set to
clinch the lining securely in place. The linings furnished
by the Ford makers are the only ones that should be used
because serious ignition trouble may be occasioned by
particles of wire or impregnating compounds dropping
off of linings not made for this purpose getting around
the magneto current collecting plunger.

Rear Axle Troubles and Remedies. — If continual grind-
ing noises are heard in the rear axle when the car is
being operated on the high speed drive, this is a sign
that the gears or the bearings in the rear axle are worn
and calls for a thorough overhauling of that member.
Wear in bearings can be tested by jacking up the rear

Removing Transmission Bands 271

<'ml and lifting upon the wheels in the same way as ad-
vised for testing the emergency or rear hub brakes. If
it is possible to move the wheel up and down it indicates
that either the roller bearings or the axle is worn. Steps

272 The Ford Model T Car

should be taken to correct this, because wear at this point
imposes great strains on the roller bearings at either side
of the differential.

After a car has been in use for a time and especially
if the differential housing has not been kept properly-
lubricated, the babbitt thrust collars at each side of the
differential and the bronze bushings in the differential
case may wear suflSciently so that the bevel driving gears
will not mesh properly. The best way of making axle
repairs is to take this member ajDart after it has been
removed from the chassis and carefully examine all worn
j)arts. The first step in removing the rear axle is to jack
up the car and remove the rear wheels as previously de-
scribed for inspecting the hub brakes. Take out the four
bolts connecting the universal joint ball retaining cap to
the transmission case and cover. Disconnect the hub
brake rods from the cross shaft to which the hand lever
is fastened. Eaise the frame so that the weight will be
released w^hich w^ill permit of removing the spring
shackles or the spring perches from the rear axle housing
flanges if this method is preferred.

It is not necessary to remove the wheels while the
axle is under the car as the spring may be disconnected
from the spring perches by taking off the spring shackles.
Some repairmen jirefer to leave the wheels on as it en-
ables them to roll the axle out from under the car. The
first step in taking down the axle is to remove the retain-
ing nuts at the end of the radius rods. Then to remove
the drive shaft tube by taking off the nuts on the six
retaining studs holding the drive shaft assembly to the
rear axle housing. Next remove the bolts which hold
the two halves of the differential housing together. The
wheels nmst be removed from the axle shaft to permit

FfffCrroN F/^

Fig. 92. — How FricUoii Lining 1b Riveted to Biake

274 The Ford Model T Car

one to spread the housings apart as shown at Fig. 93,
and obtain access to the differential gear. The two halves
of the axle housing may be removed entirely, if desired,
thus leaving the differential gear with the two wheel drive
shafts extending from it, one at either side.

The gear teeth should be carefully examined, espe-
cially those on the bevel drive pinion which are apt to wear
more quickly than those of the bevel ring gear on account
of their being a lesser number to transmit the power. If
the pinioii teeth surfaces have flaked or if portions of the
teeth are broken, a new pinion should be installed in place
of the defective one. Before installing a new pinion care
should bo taken to see that there is no lost motion in
either the ball or roller bearings, back of the pinion.
Any play in these members must be removed by fitting
new bearings because these are the most important bear-
ings in the entire axle mechanism. Any play in these
bearings may result in loss of alignment between the driv-
ing and driven gears.

The pinion may be easily removed from the end of the
drive shaft by taking out the locking pin passing throu^
the castelated nut and removing the nut, then drawing
the pinion off the drive shaft with a suitable gear puller.
The babbitt thrust washers and the steel plates on each
side of them should be examined to see that these are not
worn and the axles should be grasjied and moved up and
down to see if there is any i:)lay between them and the
differential casing. If any looseness is present at this
point it is because the bronze bushings in the differential
casing that bear on the hubs of the compensating gears
have worn. The differential casing is taken apart by un-
loosening the through bolts which frees the two halves
of the casing. This exposes the compensating gears, and

Bear Axle Repairs 275

if these have been damaged as might result if a piece of
broken pinion tooth was to get into the differential
mechanism, it is necessary to remove the compensating
gears from the axle shaft.

On examination it will be seen that the gears are keyed
on and are held in position by a ring which is in two

t Show Dlffereiitl«l And

halves and which fits in a groove in a shaft. To remove
the gears they must be forced down on the shaft away
from the end to which they are secured in order to expose
the rings which are removed from the grooves to per-
mit the gears to be forced off the end of the shaft. If
the roller bearings have worn and the shaft is not cut or
worn in at the bearing point a new roll and cage assembly

276 The Ford Model T Car

may be installed. Sometimes the steel lining or shell
placed in the axle housing will wear. This may be easily
removed and a new one inserted. If the axle shaft is re-
duced in diameter at the bearing point the only means of
restoration possible is to replace the entire axle shaft.
Leakage of oil or grease out of the axle is usually because
the two halves are not securely bolted together if the leak
is around the differential housing or because the felt re-
taining washers at the wheel end of the axjes have depre-
ciated. This may be suspected if the brakes have become
fouled with oil.

Miscellaneous Chassis Parts. — There are a number of
minor points about the chassis which demand inspection
and in some cases adjustment when a car is overhauled.
The most important of these is the front axle and steer-
ing connections. The front wheels should be inspected to
make sure that they are in proper adjustment and that
they run smoothly without appreciable side play. The
bearings should be thoroughly cleaned and looked over
to see that there are no broken balls and that the cones
and ball races have not become pitted or roughened on
the ball track. If there is much play in the steering rods
or in the bearings supporting the steering spindle bolt
the only remedy is to drive out the worn bushings and
replace with new ones, which will be an inexpensive
operation.

If the front wheel is in proper adjustment it should
spin easily and come to rest with the tire valve at the
bottom. If the ball bearings in the front wheels wear
out quickly it is usually due to water getting into the
bearings, the use of lubricant containing acid or improper
bearing adjustment. One can be sure that no water will
get into the bearings if the felt washer on the inside of

Miscellaneous Chassis Parts 277

the wheel hub is in proper condition and if the front hub
interior is filled with the proper grade of mineral grease.
The rear wheels should be inspected after the car has been
driven for a time to make sure that these fit the taper
ends of the axle shafts tightly.

If there is considerable rattling and knocking at the
front end of the car and the trouble is not due to loose
engine bearings it is often caused by the ball joint at tlie
end of the front axle radius member being loose. This
may be tightened up by removing the cap and grinding
off some of the cap face in order to have it set more
tightly against the ball and to force that member into
more intimate contact with the hemispherical seat on
the front side of the flywheel* compartment. Special

I' spring adjusted caps are now furnished by the Ford
Company. Eattling is also caused by loose steering con-
nections and by loose mud guards.

Squeaking noises result when the springs become rusty
and no lubricant is present between the leaves. While the
car is being overhauled it is a good plan to remove the
springs from the chassis and to take these apart, cleaning
off the surfaces with emery cloth and smearing them with
a mixture of graphite and oil before reassembling. It is
a very simple matter to remove the springs from the
Ford frame as these are held by readily detachable spring
cUps, shown at Fig. 93. Both front and rear springs may
be removed by taking off two spring clips and two spring
shackles. It is important to jack up the frame so the
weight will be taken off the springs before any attempt is
made to remove these from the chassis.

After a car has been in service two or three years,
excessive play in the steering gear may result from de-
preciation of the teeth of the small planetary pinions and

278

The Ford Model T Car

internal gear mounted under the steering wheel spider.
These must he replaced with new ones when worn. The
steering wheel is removed from the steering column hy
unloosening the nut on top of the wheel spider and pulling
off the spider huh from the shaft to which it is fastened.
The interior of the steering gear may he easily inspected
after the steering wheel is removed by loosening a set

Steering Knuckle

Steering Spindle

Fig. 94. — Outlining Method of Ford Front and Bear Spring Betention.

screw and unscrewing tlie brass cap tliat is a cover for
tlie reduction gear case. If a wheel puller is not available
for taking the steering wheel off of the steering post it
may be driven off of the shaft with a block of wood and
a hammer.

In addition to the main points mentioned there are a
number of minor bearing j^oiiits such as the bushings in
the spring eyes, the shackle bolts and the various rod

Miscellaneous Chassis Parts 279

ends and pins at the joints of the control rods which will
wear and produce their quota of noise. The bolts em-.
ployed for holding the body to the chassis sometimes
loosen, this resulting in quite a severe pounding noise
when the car is operated over anything but the smoothest
highway.

THE END

INDEX

A PAGE

Abrasive for Valve Grinding 231

Action of Cooling System 90

Action of Differential Gear 120

Action of Ignition System 75

Action of Timer 77

Adjusting Carburetor 193

Adjusting High Speed Clutch 200

Adjusting Main Bearings 239

Adjusting Transmission 198

Adjusting Vibrators 191

Adjustment of Carburetors 70

Adjustment of Fan Belt 197

Adjustment of Front Wheels 202

Adjustment of Spark Points 190

Air and Gas Mixtures Suited For Fuel 66

Air Gap of Spark Plugs 189

Anti-freezing Solutions 153

Assembling Transmission 266

Automobile Essentials 23

Axle Bearings 116

Ball Bearings, Front Wheel 117

Ball Thrust Bearing 117

Bearings, Anti-friction 116

Binding Transmission Bands 201

Body Construction 40

Brake, Adjustment of Foot 201

Brake Bands, How to Remove 269

Brake Shoes, Replacement of 208

Brake, Transmission 123

Brakes, How to Test Wheels 204

282 Index

PAGE

Brakes, Rear Wheel 124

Brakes, Why Used 123

Camshaft Speed 61

Camshaft, Why Used 59

Camshafts and Timing Gears 251

Carbon Deposits, Effects of 219

Carbon Deposits, Removing 222

Carburetion Principles > 63

Carburetion System 62

Carburetor Adjustment 70

Carburetor, What It Should Do 67

Carburetors, Action of . . 69

Carburetors, Float Feed 69

Causes of Overheating 197

Caustic Soda Solution for Removing Sediment 195

Change Speed Gearing Repairs 262

Change Speed Gearing, Why Used 105

Chassis Parts, Miscellaneous 276

Clutch Forms and Requirements 102

Clutch, How to Adjust High Speed 200

Clutch, Slow Speed 201

Clutch, Why Needed ^100

Combustion, Definition of 63

Compression Stroke 50

Connecting Rod Design 67

Connecting Rods, Adjusting 245

Connecting Rods, Remetalling 247

Construction of Muffler 97

Controlling The Ford Car 142

Cooling System Parts 90

Cooling Systems Generally Used 88

Cracked Water Jacket, How to Repair 224

Crank Shaft and Bearings 61

I ■

Deposits in Radiator, Cause of 195

Deposits in Radiator, Removal of 195

Differential Gear Action 120

Index 288

♦ PAGE

DiflPerential Gear, Why Needed .'.... 119

Driving Instructions, General 146

Dry Cells, How Wired 81

Electric Lighting Fixtures 160

Engine Bearings, Inspection of 236

Engine, Causes of Intermittent Action 186

Engine Fails To Start, What To Do When 141

Engine, Firing Order of 54

Engine, How to Dismantle 215

Engine, How to Start 134

Engine Parts and Functions 55

Engine Parts, How To Remove 218

Engine Stop, Causes For 180

Exhaust or Scavenging Stroke 52

Explosion Effect 52

Fan Belt Adjustment 197

Faults in Power Pftint, Symptoms 210

Firing Order of Ford Engine 54

Fitting New Piston Rings 234

Flame of Exhaust as Mixture Index 193

Flexibility of Running Gear 33

Flywheel, Purpose of 61

Ford Braking System 123

Ford Change Speed Gearing 106

Ford Cooling System 89

Ford Float Feed Carburetor . 69

Ford Magneto Repairs 256

Ford Muffler Action 96

Ford Wiring Diagram 76

Four Cycle Engine Action 46

Four Cylinder Advantages 55

Frame Assembly Details 37

Freezing Points of Cooling Solutions 155

Friction Clutch Action 102

Front Wheel Bearings 117

Front Wheels, Adjustment of 202

284 Index

PAGE

Fuel Systems, Defects In 192

Fuel Tank, How to Measure 134

Function of Pedals 144

Function of Separator 67

Gasoline Mixture Proportions 70

Gasoline Separator 67

Gears For Power Transmission 110

General Driving Instructions 146

Grinding Valves 229

Hand Lever, Use of 144

Handling Piston Bings 232

Heat Loss in Engine 87

Hints on Scraping Bearings 243

How Engine Speed is Altered 68

IIow Ford Engine Works 46

How Ford Power Plant is Oiled 94

How Hand Lever is Used 144

How To Dismantle Engine 215

How To Judge Correct Mixture 193

Ignition System Action 75

Ignition System Parts 72

Ignition System Parts, Miscellaneous 191

Ignition System Troubles, Locating 183

Induction Coil System Explained 73

Inner Tube Construction 131

Inspection of Engine Bearings 287

Inspection of Piston Rings 232

Internal Combustion, Definition of 47

Knocking Indicates Worn Bearings 288

Index ^ 285

L PAGE

Lighting System . 158

Locating Fuel System Faults 192

Locating Ignition Troubles 186

Locating ''Skipping'' Cylinder 187

Magneto, Construction of 79

Magneto, Parts of 80

Magneto, Why Used* on Ford 78

Main Bearings, Adjusting 239

Master Vibrator System 84

Measuring Contents of Fuel Tank 134

Method of Grasping Hand Crank, Correct ........ 139

Method of Grasping Hand Crank, Incorrect 139

Miscellaneous Chassis Parts 276

Motor Car Components 22

Muffler Construction 97

Multiple Series 83

Noisy Actiop, Causes of 211

Oiling Ford Power Plant 94

Oiling, Suggestions for 198

Oils, How Derived 92

Oils, Kequirements of 92

Oil System Faults 194

Oil, Why Used 91

Outer Casing Parts 131

Overhauling, System in 212

Overhauling, When Necessary 210

Overheating, Causes and Prevention 197

Packings and Gaskets for Motor 258

Parts of Ford Chassis 25

286 Index

PAGE

Parts of Rear Axle 115

Parts of Rear Axle, To Examine 274

Pedals, What They Do 144

Piston Movements in Four Cycle Engine 54

Piston Rings, Fitting New 234

Piston Rings, Inspection of 232

Piston Rings, Manipulation of 232

Piston Rings, Why Used " . 57

Placing Control Levers When Starting 137

Planetary Gearing Operation 106

Pneumatic Tires, Construction of 128

Power Plant Details 43

Power Plant Faults, How Evidenced 210

Power Transmission Method 110

Precautions in Reassembling 261

Precautions When Pouring Gasoline 135

Process of Grinding Valves 229

Prussian Blue Test for Valve Seating 231

Radiator and Piping, Deposits in 194

Rear Axle, Construction of 115

Rear Axle, Parts of * . . 115

Rear Axle Repairs 272

Rear Axle Troubles 271

Rear Brakes, Inspection of 204

Rear Wheels, How To Remove 205

Reasons for Slow Starting 141

Reassembling Parts, Precautions in 260

Relining Brake Bands 270

Remetalling Connecting Rods 247

Removing and Applying Tires 169

Removing Carbon Deposits 222

Removing Cylinder Head 217

Removable Cylinder Head, Advantages 59

Repairing Change Speed Gearing 264

Repairing Magneto 256

Repairs to Rear Axle 272

Reseating Valves 226

Reversing Car, Method of 145

Roller Bearings 117

Index 287

PAGB

Scraping Bearings, Hints on 243

Scraping Bearings To Fit 240

Series Wiring 83

Silencing Exhaust Gas 97

** Skipping*' Cylinder, How To Locate 187

Slipping Transmission Bands 198

Spark Coil Vibrator, Adjustment of 191

Spark Plugs, Faults and Remedies 189

Special Tool Equipment 178

Spring Construction 38

Spring Repairs 277

Starting Positions of Spark and Throttle 137

Steering Gear Action 125

Steering Gear Repairs 278

Steps Before Starting Engine 134

Suction or Charging Stroke 51

Suggestions for Oiling 148

Summary of Ignition System Faults 187

Systematic Lubrication Method 151

System in Overhauling 212

Taking Down Engine 215

Testing Bearing For Fit . . . : 244

Testing Connecting Rod Bearing Parallelism 249

Testing Valve Seating 231

Testing Wheel Looseness 203

Theory of Lubrication 91

Three Point Suspension Features 28

Timer Construction 77

Timing Ford Valves 255

Tire Inflation Methods 172

Tire Manipulation Hints 169

Tire Repair and Maintenance 173

Tire Repairs, By Vulcanizing 177

Tire Repairs, Tools for 165

Tire Troubles, Where Found 175

Tools and Supplies for Tire Repairs 165

Transmission Bands, Removing 269

Transmission, How to Adjust 198

288 Index

PAGE

Transmission, How To Dismantle 262

Troubles Causing Engine Stop 180

Troubles in Ignition System 183

Universal Joint Action 114

Use of Tire Irons 170

Utility of Brakes 123

Utility of Dry Cells 81

Valve Grinding Process 229

Valve Operation Means 59

Valve Eemoval, Tools For 228

Valve Seating, Test for 231

Valve Timing Method 252

Valve Timing in Ford Engine 255

Valves, Reseating and Truing 226

Why Clutch is Necessary 100

Why Cooling Systems Are Necessary 81

Why Oil is Used 91

Winter Care of Automobiles 153

Wiring Diagrams for Dry Cells 82

Wiring Diagram, Ignition 76

Wiring Diagram, Master Vibrator 85

Wiring Dry Cells 81

Wiring Electric Lamps 164

Wristpin Wear 236

JUST PUBLISHED
MIS Vbw, KavlMd and KiUrged &dldcm, Sbowlnc all R*<MDt ImprovaniMttl

THE MODERN
GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE

lb CoBttnclioii, OpentioB, MunteiuDce and Repair

By VICTOR W, PAGE, M.E.

Heint»rSwi«yorAutDiiiDblliiBiiElD«il
600 IlluBlrations Ovw 850 (SHJtS) Pages Twelve Folding PtaUB

Price $2.50 net

A Complete Automobile Book, Showing Every Recent Improvement

r Issued. Written Id alDipIo

TluiEusRB by a recogniuHl auttiarity. f amHIar with evtry branch ot the autamobUe InduMnr.
FreRtrnm technical coma. EverybtaiiuliexplalnedBaihinilr that anyone <donUnaryIiiteia-
Renco may gain a CDTHprehenxtte knoiri«lKe ot th« ■aioUiie aulaaitUlH. The InfomtatloB'
Is up l» date andlndudea. In addition to an expo^tlon ot pclnclpka ot omitructlan and denzIptMn
o( aU types ot ac^t^mobliea and their compcuientfl» vahiable moner-aaiiiiB hinta on Iha care ■wl

[s propelied by lnl«nial on

CONTAINS SPECIAL CHAPTERS OH

t.~Tyiw8 o( Modem Autmnobilea. n.— How X.—'WbnIi. Biros and Tlra. XI.~Moior Car

Power Ik Oenaraled. lit.— PtId^aI Partii ot liquipmpm and Actrasorles. SII. — Operating

Oaaollne Enrfnea; Their Deiliin. Onutruclkm Ailvtco and EKplanaUon nt AutoraDbOe Con.

— " ■—UcatlDii. JV.— OoOAnctloilBl Detaila troIMeUiode. XIII— Biotn to AoistlnLocat-

" " uldrn^UndudMetboda Ing Foncr-Plant Troubloa. XIV.— Kcsplng Up

Maeneio-KlcGtric Phenomena: Why Ourrena

»i .„., r ui„i, Tmiaion Coll Ignition Sj-

D ImprOTOnienla Fully t

^ M^ ^''e: '^'^'^'°4!t' ,'!^'.^„'' T^j^" ^''" ^^",1^*1?° ^IP^

J-SKjd

TO THE' ISIS REVISED EDITION

His mblMt ot elecMral piotor Btartlng systenu hai been connldcred at length and alL'leadtna
■Tiitenw and i^Ot romponentg described. ^E discunlan on ball and rolhr bearlnE, their m^ntenanco
and Imtallatkia. baa iu» been Ineluded, and a number of other features ot timely Interest surh aa
laleat Urpes of taanllne and keroiene carburelon. raidecar power plaals, tbe nachcr slide valva
motor.' dsMtcbiMB wlro wheels. cantOerer sprlnitsc dEht.and tweliM'Under moton

tMvg triienm. SUHnrt-'Wamer vacuum fuel I«M. Boattyr- '—■'- »--■-

'~'t> eleetrio tranamlsalon, podUve dUterentlal. armorod ai

material has been added on tractora In three and four-wheel forms, cycleears and

wa or aubimobllo plows; combination nasoline-eiectrln drlvo. front-wheel and four-
wheel drive and ewec Byatema and other important devtlopmenls in powfir- propelled vphldea. Tho
dlscuBilnn of power trvnsnilsslon npthods has hem augmenwd by consldcratinn of tlie Bkei bi^vel
Bear and Iwo^peed direct drive rifar axle as well as eevcra! new lorma of woim gear drive, etc,
havo been added to bring the work thoroughly up (fl date.

ThebookteUayouJuat what lodo. how and when todo it. Nothing hSJi been omitted, nodetall
baa been (lighted. Every part nf the automobile, its equipment. BCCCMorUH, tool*, suppbe«. gpan
■parls nen.'saaj^. etc.. havu been diwiinsod romprehenaiyely. If jou araor Intend to become a motor-
ist, or anilnany way intemled In the modern gasollno automobile, thla la a book you cannot aBord

subloct. — The TnwattM Aql
tments. and In which the wM*
o plainly handled, both in S

IniHstwntable to All Who Motor

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

RELATINQ TO MODSRN

AutoinobQe Design, Caiutniction, Dririns uj Repar

d PlatM Qoth B

Price $1.50

A Sdf-Educator on Aufomobiling ^Vithaut s

nflLruction. OEKinitlon

GIvix tho Dmmo ot all Important wtiU of ui ■uiomafallB uid describe tbelr lunctloiuT J>cMrni«
■vBtem and & "dual" Unltlon systoniT Name paru i^ ui Indu

a'f Namo alt Important tyi»ca of ball and roller bearingsT 1^
07 What la a lwo-siJ«d ailo? What Is tho Vulcan^Lectric

Ik>wit ?n automobifw^ D

to donuigcd mectaanlBm and ffi^o i»UBflaT Ho*

oqulp a car? How do you drtve varloiu malwi
- usodr Name dllTersaC ■jnlema at wlra ubiiel

Answers every, qaastioa askvd relating to th« inodora automobile

SVHOPilS OF THE 37 LESSONS

The Modorn Risnline AulomoWle and Its
iroiir Stniks Cycle
ITS and Thdr Puuc- >

e to Rear VftmetM.

How

Vulomoblle Motors.
Carhurctlon and Its Aptdl«tloa.
Carburetors and Their AcUon.
19 [iipladed In Cylinder to Pro-

Gear Coiutnictlim and Ogmnt-
Framas knd Bprlnga.

Parts of Ignition Syslems and Tholr Pur-
Current Produce™, BatiertcB. Dynamos

Ijiw Teiudon iRnlUon Systeim,
IIIkIi Tension Innltlon Sysunna.
MetlHidH of Lubricating tho Automobile

y Air.

lisriort'luich and Viu-lnua Types Uoscribed.

FiilnK Tire Defects.
Equipment Bad *

WHAT IS SniD or THIS BOOK:

If you own ■ car — Got this hook. — The niassaarler.

Mr. I>iwifi hao the laeulty ot rnaUnn dlfiloutt eubjecca plain and underatanc

Mr, vS"or"™'pPrt.^*'frn«'Ni A^rlam. P"I"™ ' "" '"'^

w and Their Symptoma.
J rawer Tranami
and Their :

— BmHnvrtnfKwm

HJ8T PUBLISHgQ

Modern Starting, Lighting
and Ignition Systems

By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.E.

ir or " Tb« Mulf rn Oawlfnc Automoblli.- i

Price $1.50
A Self-Edacator on Electrical Systems Withoat an Equal

THIS practical volume has b«a written ^tb specTal refermcd to the requrreiuencs '*r the nan*
tecLuilcal r«Ad^ d?«lrliie easily understood ciplajiatory mafter relating lo aLL tjpes of vtto^
mot^e Ignition, startlnE and lighting gystems. It can be undersdwd by anyone, even irltb-

■ttBmpt Is made to discuss realures of tbe various Systems. These basic principles sra dearly
stated and Illustrated with ^mple diagrams. All Ihe leodlni; 3\ii!ims-of ilariins. It^hllne and itmilimt
hat bien dttciibtil and llluslral/d wllh the eo-opcnuion of Uie experli employed 61/ the inanufaclureit.
Wliine •HaBrams are shoicn in to/ft lechnicat and non-uclinlcal formi. AH a]/"""/!! arefullu explalntt.
Thtt it a IKOH of real merll.

lUrtlng mn* liall

by complete diagrams showing all caiuectloua and the relation tbo various parts ot the assemUr ;
tiear to each other. Complete data Is given, for locating (roubles In all systems. Che various step* '
bdng cnnaldered in a logical, systematic manner, that can be easily followed by those without eipert
oleclrlcal knowledge. All lunltlon systems receive fuU consideration, starting with tbo simpiat
battery and cnll forms found on early cars to the modem sho^t^»nlact timer and masnelo method*
UBPd with the latest eight and twelve cylinder motors. Evcrj- ignition, starting or lighting system

la unusually complete as It also includes deecrlptlons ol various acccKories operalBd hy oleellte

Qie systemi ot cars altoidy in use as well as Uiose that are to come in 191O. A book ever>- me oeedi.

alightrtil

CONDENSED SVHOPStS OF CONTENTS:

J Klectrldty: Currant Productiuni Flow: Cirqulta; Measurement; DellDllloii*;
Battery Action: Gener»tor Action. II. — Battery I gnttinn Systama, III. — Magneto
Ignltkm SyBlema. IV. — Elementary Eipoeitlon ot Starling System Principles. V. — Typical
Starting and Ughtli* ajBl«inB: PracOfial Application: "Wiring Diagrams; Aulo-lllc, Bijm', Detao,
DyneW-Enti. Gray U)d Davis. Remy. U. 8. L,, Westlnghouse. Bosnh-Sushmore. Genomotor.
North-East. etc. VI.— LocaUng and KepalrlnsTroubles in Starting and Ughtlng Systems. VII.—
AuiIUary Electric S^ratemi; Qear-ehllting by Electricity: Wamlng Signals; Electric Brake; Xal>

Automobile Repairing

Made Easy

By VICTOR W. PAQB, M. E.

Price $3.00 Net

A ComprehensiTe, Practical Exposition of Every Phase of
Modern Automobile Repairing Practice

The pnly book of its kind It fills a real demand

I moBir car reatontinn. OlvcB rJsrs (or wnrltsMop coo-

bIjQ rBpalrioa. OtJier w
lUU-tjl nLth tbe BDCtas, tuau

„ 1 .:. .:. I'tS'.SSa

Ing goais and ollior rhTTi t" M"n ■-'ii- ihort cuts InflgurtneandnilEaof iirmcUco
ijrtfiB mechftdic EiplAL III I I I I 111 ro liming, "tuning^' enginPB, Byileminlc

ieti on practical BKpcirlence oVerylhld^ 1b explair
re a full workipp kiiowJet*— "' -».«p«-i.ii« .,^^.1-

1 All llluBlrallDiu aro cepedaUy mi
1 pf englneorfog drawings.
r Sfortinff Liohtinu and Tijrtition System
loaniSoMeTing.Ile'U Trea:mtnl of SI

COHDEHSED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS:

}nio'Dllo GspBir bhcip bulldlaica (or Itopalr Work. Machlnerr and t'ovor. Ai^

o — -^purlmonUi Bench and floor Eoulpmenl 2 Small Toql EquJpaiont tor Riipajr

abopi ToolslorAdliHlliigandFrcetlng I^uciaion Muaauring Tools and Tb^ Use Spcclsl Took.
„ ,... 1 ,^ „. «.„, H a .._ .T„..j„j ■, ovErhauUng tbe GaBollnBSMslno. ffow to^Dta-

OomplflUi Urt at Tools and 'Supplies Ncedod 3 OverhauUng tbe OaBollni Snclne, How to.!
mantis Motor. DelecM ia all Mo'*"' Funs Keualrlng Scored and Oncked Ci^ndors. Ti
Itupaln. Fitting Bearings ValJe Timing Elgfil 1 vllniler " ■"-' — "' "-•— ■-—

.. „. _ , , ..idialflr Rppalia. W»ter

Pump Bepaln. Fuel I'eod Methods Ad]u-^1 1, '^\sU<ids. Whrre to Look

for LDlirintloo Trouble. G Location and K< Baltiiry ignition System.

Muneto SystomB. How to Find All Ignition 1 jnd Adjustment. Madera

Siillion Timing. 0. Motor Starting and Cue 1 ng SjEtfma Describsd In

itall. WMnc IMJisraniB Tracing Paultj: I aults. Principal Clutch

Troubies OutUnea. TJlutch Repair Planeiar )r \ n aliding Gpbt Tran»-

ndsalona. S. Faults la ChBMK Oompoomts o -prtng lirpim, Stopring

GoMii. 9. Tlie Rear Axle 8nd Driving tystom iuni T »i>- -.1 iurr, r a d Pull Floating Allen. Oaro
ol Drive and DiOerentlal Gears Ailn Bearlli(,s lu tllui Kuiia uud Tiro. Vlru Wheels All
TvpeaolRtms. Rabuildbigand RaoiJriiigTIrB 11 MlacBllaneous Rtpair ProceasBB. AutWBnoiu
Weldtnii, Heat Treatment n( Stsef Brazing and SDldnring 12 Useful InlurmstiaD, IsTlllnta.
KInka, Beeipcs and Formulae 1 4 Useful Tables tor Mechanics Uathemsiical. MecbanlMI. In-
cluding HocB»-iiairar Kid Bined Oharls

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Texts

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The Model T Ford Car, Its Construction, Operation and Repair: A Complete Practical Treatise ..."

See other formats